The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is one of the two remaining subspecies of Equus ferus . This is a strange stumped mammal belonging to the family of taxonomy Equidae. The horse has evolved for 45 to 55 million years from a small four-legged creature, Eohippus, into this large one-legged animal today. Humans began to tame the horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread in 3000 BC. The horses in the subspecies of caballus are domesticated, although some domestic populations live in the wild as wild horses. This wild population is not a true wild horse, as it is used to describe an unpompeted horse, such as the endangered Przewalski horse, separate subspecies, and the only remaining wild horse. There is an extensive specialized vocabulary that is used to describe horse-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stage, size, color, sign, breed, locomosi, and behavior.
The horse's anatomy allows them to use speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed balance and strong fighting or flight response. Associated with the need to escape from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses can sleep while standing and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep more than adults. The horse, called a horse, takes their child for about 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run as soon as it is born. Most pet horses start practicing under the saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four years. They achieve full adult development by the age of five, and have an average age between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on common temperament: "hot blood" is vibrant with speed and endurance; "Cold blood", like a horse draft and some ponies, is suitable for heavy and slow work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot and cold blood, often focusing on the creation of breeds for special riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a variety of non-competitive sports and recreational recreational competitions, as well as in work activities such as police, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy work. Horses are historically used in battle, from which various driving and riding techniques are developed, using many different types of equipment and control methods. Many products come from horses, including meat, milk, skin, hair, bones, and drugs taken from pregnant mare urine. Man provides a pet horse with food, water and shelter, as well as the attention of specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Video Horse
Biology
Special terms and special languages ​​are used to describe the anatomy of horses, various stages of life, colors and descendants.
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on the breed, management and environment, modern domestic horses have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Not common, some animals live in their 40s and, sometimes, outside. The oldest verifiable record is "Old Billy", a 19th century horse that lives up to the age of 62 years. In modern times, Sugar Puff, which has been listed on Guinness World Records as the world's oldest pony life, died in 2007 at the age of 56.
Regardless of the actual birth date of the horse or horse, for most of the year's competition purposes it is added to its age every January 1 every year in the northern hemisphere and every August 1 in the southern hemisphere. Exceptions are in resilience, where the minimum age to compete is based on the actual animal calendar age.
The following terminology is used to describe horses of different ages:
- Foal: Foals of the sex of less than one year. A nursing foal is sometimes called breastfeeding and the weeded foal is called weanling. Most pets are weaned at the age of five to seven months, though foals can be weaned at four months without adverse physical effects.
- One year: A horse of any gender between one and two years of age.
- Colt: A stallion under the age of four. The common terminology is to call any young horse "colt", when the term actually refers only to a young stallion.
- Filly: A mare under the age of four.
- Mare: A mare aged four years and older.
- Horses: Unesculpted stallion four years and older. The term "horse" is sometimes used daily to refer specifically to a stallion.
- Gelding: A stallion that is castrated of all ages.
In horse racing, this definition may be different: For example, in the British Isles, Horse Racing horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Thoroughbred Australia races define colts and fillies as less than four years old.
Size and size
Horse height is usually measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back. This point is used because it is a stable point of anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which moves up and down in relation to the horse's body.
In English-speaking countries, horse height is often expressed in hands and inches: one hand equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the full number of hands, followed by a point, then an additional inches, and ends with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "high hand"). Thus, the horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, with a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) high.
Horse size varies with breed, but it is also influenced by nutrition. Horse riding usually has a height ranging from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and weighs 380-550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 pounds). The larger horse riding usually starts around 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and is often as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 pounds). Weight or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64Ã, inch, 163Ã, cm) tall and can be as high as 18Ã, hand (72Ã, inch, 183Ã, cm) tall. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 pounds).
The largest horse in recorded history is probably the Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stands 21.2 1 / 4 hand (86.25 inches, 219 cm) and weighs an estimated 1,524 kilograms (3,360 pounds). The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse influenced by dwarfism. Height 17 inches (43 cm) and weighs 57 pounds (26 kg).
Ponies
Taxonomically taxonomy is the same animal as a horse. The difference between horses and horses is usually done on the basis of heights, especially for the purpose of competition. However, the height alone is not dispositive; the difference between a horse and a pony can also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for horse or horse height at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). Animals 14.2 hours or more are usually considered horses and are less than 14.2 hours of horses, but there are many exceptions to traditional standards. In Australia, horses are considered as those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). For the competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm). The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the governing body of the world for horse sports, uses metric measurements and defines horses as horses measuring less than 148 cm (58.27 inches) in shoes withers, which is just over 14.2 hours, and 149 cm (58.66 inches), or more than 14.2 ½ hours, with shoes.
Height is not the only criterion to distinguish a horse from a pony. The registry breeds for horses that normally produce individuals below and over 14.2 hours considering all the animals breed into horses regardless of their height. In contrast, some horse breeds may have similar features to horses, and individual animals can sometimes mature in more than 14.2 hours, but are still considered horses.
Ponies often show thicker mane, tail, and whole coat. They also have shorter legs in proportion, wider barrels, heavier bones, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with wide foreheads. They may have a calmer temperament than a horse and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, a Shetland horse that averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony. In contrast, breeds such as Falabella and other miniature horses, which should not be higher than 30 inches (76 cm), are classified by their registrants as very small horses, not ponies.
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes. The horse's genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion base pairs of DNA, which is larger than the dog's genome, but smaller than the human genome or the cow's genome. This map is available to researchers.
Colors and signs
Horses exhibit a variety of fur colors and distinctive signs, described by a special vocabulary. Often, horses are first classified by feather color, before breeding or gender. Horses of the same color can be distinguished from each other by white marks, which, together with various patterns of spotting, are inherited separately from the color of the feathers.
Many genes that create color and patterns of horsehair have been identified. Current genetic testing can identify at least 13 different alleles that affect the color of the hair, and research continues to find new genes associated with certain traits. The basic color of chestnut and black is determined by genes controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor, also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor," because the recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and the dominant form is black. Supplemental gene controls the emphasis of black to indicate the colors that produce the bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, and gray, and all other factors that create many possible colors of the mantle found. on a horse.
Horses that have white fur colors are often wrongly labeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually middle-aged or older. Gray is born with a darker color, becomes lighter as they age, but usually keeps blacks under their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under a white mark). The only real white horse born with a white-dominated hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white feathers on horses, including several different alleles of the dominant white and sabino-1 genes. However, there is no "albino" horse, which is defined as having pink skin and red eyes.
Reproduction and development
Pregnancy lasts about 340 days, with an average range of 320-370 days, and usually produces one horse; twins are rare. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are able to stand and run in a short time after birth. Children are usually born in the spring. The estrus cycle of the mare occurs approximately every 19-22 days and occurs from early spring to autumn. Most horses enter the period of anestrus during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between the ages of four and six months.
Horses, especially horses, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction in about 18 months, but pets are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially women. Four-year-old horses are considered adults, although the skeleton usually continues to grow until the age of six; maturation also depends on the size, type, sex, and quality of horse care. Bigger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only does bone take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and longer to change from cartilage to bone. These plates change after the other parts of the bone, and are essential for development.
Depending on maturity, breeding, and expected work, horses are usually placed under the saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although race-ridden horses are on track as young as two years old in some countries, the horses that are specially grown for sports such as clothing are generally not placed under the saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed. For horse-endurance competitions, horses are not considered mature enough to compete until they are 60 months full (five years).
Anatomy
Skeletal system
The horse frame averages 205 bones. A significant difference between a horse's skeleton and a human bone is the lack of a collarbone - the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spine by strong muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blades to the torso. Horse legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their legs are proportionately different from human bones. For example, a body part called a horse's "knee" is actually made of carpal bones associated with the human wrist. Similarly, mace has bones that are equivalent to those in the human ankles and heels. The lower leg bone of the horse corresponds to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually a proximal sesamoid bone between the cannon bones (one with the metacarpal bone or the human metatarsal) and the proximal phalanx, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human being. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only the skin, hair, bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and various specialized tissues that make up the nails.
Hooves
The importance of legs and feet is inferred by the traditional saying, "no feet, no horses". The horse's hooves begin with a distal phalanx, the equivalent of a human finger or toe, surrounded by cartilage and other blood-rich special soft tissues such as laminae. The external nail wall and single horn are made of keratin, the same material as human fingernails. The end result is a horse, weighing an average of 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds), walking on the same bone as humans on tiptoes. For nail protection under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoe placed on their feet by a farrier professional. These nails continue to grow, and in most pet horses have to be trimmed (and the horses are reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, although hooves in the wild will break down and grow back at a speed appropriate for their terrain.
Dental
Horses adapted to graze. In adult horses, there are 12 incisors on the front of the mouth, adjusted by biting grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth that are adapted for chewing, premolar and molar, behind the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth right behind the incisors, a kind of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molar, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally discarded because they can disrupt bits. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit is located directly in the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is curbed.
Estimated age of the horse can be made from seeing his teeth. Teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are damaged by grazing. Therefore, the incisor shows changes such as the age of the horse; they develop different wear patterns, tooth shape changes, and angular changes where chewing surfaces meet. This allows for a very rough approximate age of horses, although diet and animal care may also affect dental wear rates.
Digestion
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system that is adapted to the diet of grass and other plant materials, consumed continuously throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but a very long intestine to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-pound (990-pound) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 pounds) of food per day and, in normal use, drink 38 to 45 liters (8.4 to 9.9 calories, 10 to 12 liters US ) water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can utilize cellulose, the main component of grass. The horse is a hindgut fermentor. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water intestine," through which food passes before it reaches the large intestine. Horses can not vomit, so digestive problems can quickly lead to colic, the leading cause of death.
Sense
The horse's senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and lateral eyes, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that the horse has a visual range of more than 350 °, with approximately 65 ° of this binocular vision and 285 remaining monocular visions. Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have a two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related, appear as green.
Their sense of smell, though much better than humans, is not as good as dogs. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key aromas in the environment. The horse has two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavities, which analyze various odors. The second one, which lies beneath the nasal cavity, is the Vomeronasal organ, also called the Jacobson organ. It has separate neural pathways to the brain and seems to primarily analyze pheromones.
Hearing is a good horse, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180 °, giving the auditory potential 360 Â ° without having to move the head. Noise affects the behavior of horses and certain types of noise that can contribute to stress: A 2013 study in England shows that the stiffest horses are quiet in a quiet environment, or if listening to country or classical music, but showing signs of anxiety when listen to jazz or rock music. The study also recommends keeping music below a 21 decibel volume. A study in Australia found that stubborn runners who listened to talk radio had higher levels of gastric ulcers than horses who listened to music, and racehorse hardened in place of radio plays have higher overall ulceration rates than stiff horses when none the radio played.
Horses have a great sense of balance, partly because of their ability to feel their footing and partly for the highly developed proprioception - the unconscious sense in which the body and limbs are always there. The feeling of a horse's touch developed well. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses can feel smooth contacts like insects landing anywhere in the body.
Horses have a sophisticated sense of taste, allowing them to sort out the food and choose what they like most to eat, and their handy lips can easily sequence small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, but there are exceptions; horses will sometimes eat some poisonous plant poison even when there is sufficient healthy food.
Movement
All horses move naturally with four basic observations: a four-beats walk, which averages 6.4 kilometers per hour (4.0 mph); run or run twice at 13 to 19 kilometers per hour (8.1-11.8 mph) (faster for horse racing harness); canter or lope, gait of three beats that is 19 to 24 kilometers per hour (12 to 15 mph); and race. The movement averages 40 to 48 kilometers per hour (25 to 30 mph), but the world record for the shorter horse, the sprint spacing is 70.76 kilometers per hour (43.97 mph). In addition to this basic abstinence, some horses make two-speed steps, instead of running. There are also some four-tap "paddle" gauges that are roughly the same as running speed or speed, although they are much smoother to drive. These include the lateral shelf, walking runs, and t'¶tt as well as the fox diagonal fox. Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as echoes. Often, the captured horses replace the trot with one of the running echoes.
Behavior
Horses are predatory animals with strong fight-or-flight responses. Their first reaction to threats is surprising and usually runs away, although they will stand up and defend themselves when flight is not possible or if their children are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when shocked, they will often hesitate for a moment to ascertain the cause of their fear, and may not always run away from something they deem not threatening. Most horsehair races are developed for speed, agility, alertness and resilience; the widespread natural qualities of their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some horse races are quite tame, especially certain horses.
Horses are herd animals, with a clear ranking hierarchy, led by dominant individuals, usually mares. They are also social beings capable of forming friendship ties with their own species and other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as touching or braying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will be difficult to manage if they are isolated, but by training, horses can learn to accept humans as companions, and thus feel comfortable away from other horses. However, when constrained by a lack of friendship, training, or stimulation, individuals can develop stable, bad habits, mostly psychological stereotypes, which include chewing wood, kicking walls, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.
Intelligence and learning
Studies show that horses perform a number of daily cognitive tasks, facing mental challenges that include food procurement and individual identification in social systems. They also have good spatial discrimination skills. They are naturally curious and precise to investigate things they have never seen before. Studies have assessed horse intelligence in areas such as problem solving, learning speed, and memory. Horses excel in simple learning, but also able to use more advanced cognitive skills that involve categorization and conceptual learning. They can learn to use habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. One study shows that horses can distinguish between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, as they live in an artificial environment that prevents instinctive behavior while also learning unnatural tasks. Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regular living, and respond well when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. A trainer believes that the "intelligent horse" is a reflection of an intelligent trainer who effectively uses positive response and positive reinforcement techniques to train in a style that best suits the animal's natural tendencies.
Temperament
Horses are mammals, and thus are warm-blooded animals, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded animals, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of horse terminology, which is used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, "hot blood", like many race horses, shows more sensitivity and energy, while "cold blood", like most race races, is calmer and more calm. Sometimes "hot blood" is classified as "light horses" or "equestrian horses", with "cold blood" classified as "draft horses" or "working horses".
Hot-blooded breeds include "Oriental horses" such as Akhal-Teke, Arabian horses, Barb and the extinct Turkoman horse, as well as Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from older oriental breeds. Hot blood tends to be excited, brave, and learn quickly. They grew up for agility and speed. They tend to be physically smooth - thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. Original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wanted to implant these properties into racing and light cavalry horses.
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold blood", because they are raised not just for strength, but also to have the calm and patient temperament necessary to pull the plow or heavy train full of people. They are sometimes called "gentle giants". Breeds of famous breeds include Belgium and Clydesdale. Some, such as Percheron, are lighter and more alive, were developed to pull wagons or to plow large fields in dry climates. Others, like the Shire, are slower and stronger, raised to plow the fields with heavy clay-based soil. Cold-blooded groups also include some horse breeds.
Breed "Warmblood", like Trakehner or Hanoverian, develops when European trains and war horses are crossed with Arabs or Thorough horses, resulting in equestrian horses rather than draft horses, but larger sizes and lighter temperaments than lighter breeds. Breeds of certain horses with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Warmbloods are regarded as "light horses" or "equestrian horses".
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a particular part of the sport horse race used for competition in dress and jump shows. Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to a cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded descendants. Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draft or Cleveland Bay. This term was once used to refer to the race of equestrian horses other than Thoroughbreds or Arabs, like the Morgan horses.
Sleep patterns
Horses can sleep while standing and lying down. In the adaptation of life in the wild, horses can enter light sleep by using a "dwelling" at their feet, allowing them to sleep without falling. Horse sleeps better when grouped because some animals will sleep while others are on the lookout to watch the predators. A horse that is kept alone will not sleep soundly because its instinct must constantly seek danger.
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in dense and uninterrupted periods of time, but take much shorter rest time. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day standing rested, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24 hour period can range from a few minutes to several hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes per minute. The average bedtime of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.
Horses have to lie down to reach REM sleep. They only need to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after a few days it will be sleep deprived, and in rare cases it can suddenly collapse by slipping into REM sleep while still standing. This condition is different from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from the disorder.
Maps Horse
Taxonomy and evolution
Horses are adapted to survive in areas with wide open fields with rare vegetation, surviving in ecosystems where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, can not. Horses and other equids are the strange ungulates of the Perissodactyla sequence, a group of dominant mammals during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three - Equidae (horse and related species), Tapiridae (tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses) - have survived to this day.
The earliest known member of the Equidae family is Hyracotherium , which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. That's 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each hind leg. The extra legs on the front leg soon disappeared with Mesohippus, who lived 32 to 37 million years ago. Over time, the extra toes shrink in size until they disappear. All that remains of them on a modern horse is a set of tiny vestigial bones in the legs below the knee, known informally as a splint. Their legs are also elongated when their toes disappear until they become animals that can run at high speed. About 5 million years ago, modern Equus has evolved. The same teeth also evolved from the exploration of soft tropical plants to adapt to drier plant material exploration, then to graze on grassland. Thus the proto-horses change from forest dwellers who eat leaves to grass-fed populations in semi-arid regions around the world, including the Eurasian steppe and Great Plains in North America.
About 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America. But between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse was extinct in North America and rare elsewhere. The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinctions in North America are parallel to the coming of man. Another theory shows climate change, noting that about 12,500 years ago, the grasses of the steppes ecosystem character gave way to the tundra bush, which was covered with unpalatable plants.
Wild species that survive to modern times
A true wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestor ever tamed. Therefore, most of today's "wild" horses are actually wild horses, animals that escape or are removed from domestic herds and offspring of the animals. Only two subspecies have never been domesticated, Tarpan and the Przewalski Horse, which survived to recorded history and only the last survive today.
The Przewalski Horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ), named after Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as Mongolian wild horse; Mongolians know it as taki , and the Kirgiz people refer to it as kirtag . The subspecies were suspected of extinction in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while small breeding populations survive in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was rebuilt in the wild due to the conservation efforts of many zoos. Currently, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia. There are additional animals that are still kept in zoos around the world.
Tarpan or European wild horses ( Equus ferus ferus ) are found in Europe and most of Asia. It survived into the era of history, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo. Thus, the genetic line is lost. Efforts have been made to create tarpan, which produces horses with physical similarities on the outside, but still the descendants of cultivated ancestors and not real wild horses.
Periodically, horse populations in remote areas are thought to be wild deer populations, but generally have been shown to be wild or domestic. For example, the Tibetan Riwoche horse is proposed as such, but testing does not reveal the genetic differences of the pet horse. Similarly, Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of Tarpan based on common characteristics, but genetic studies have shown that Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that outward similarity is a measure of unreliability.
Other modern equide
In addition to horses, there are seven other species of the genus Equus in the family Equidae. This is a donkey or donkey, Equus asinus ; mountain zebra, Equus zebra ; square zebra, Equus quagga ; Zebra Grà © vy, Equus grevyi ; kiang, Equus kiang ; and gamers, Equus hemionus .
Horses can interbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrids are mules, crossings between "jack" (male donkey) and mare. The related hybrid, hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (a female donkey). Other hybrids include zorse, cross between zebra and horse. With the rare exception, most of the hybrids are sterile and can not reproduce.
Domestication
Domestication of horses is most likely to occur in Central Asia before 3500 BC. Two main sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the horse spread throughout the world. The first source is based on the discoveries of paleoology and archeology; The second source is the comparison of DNA obtained from the modern horse with that of bones and teeth from the rest of the ancient horses.
The earliest archaeological evidence for horse domestication comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, which are about 3500-4000 BC. By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of pets throughout the continent. The latest evidence, but the most indisputable evidence of domestication comes from a site where the remains of horses were castrated with trains at the graves of Sintashta and Petrovka c. 2100 BC.
Domestication is also studied by using today's horse genetic material and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of the remaining horses found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. Variations in genetic material show that very few wild horses contribute to domestic horses, while many horses are part of the early pet herd. This is reflected in the differences in genetic variation between DNA passed along the father line, or sire (Y-chromosome) versus passed along the maternal line, or the mitochondrial DNA. There are very few variations of Y chromosome, but many genetic variations in mitochondrial DNA. There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the entry of wild mare in domestic flocks. Another characteristic of domestication is the increase in mantle color variations. In horses, this increases dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.
Prior to the availability of DNA techniques to resolve questions related to horse domestication, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification is based on body type and conformation, indicating the existence of four basic prototypes that have adapted to their environment prior to domestication. Another hypothesis states that the four prototypes come from one wild species and that all different body types are entirely the result of selective breeding after domestication. However, the lack of detectable substructure in horses has resulted in rejection of both hypotheses.
Wild population
Wild horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from pets. Many wild horse populations exist all over the world. The study of wild animals has provided useful insight into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as a greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses living in pet conditions.
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and New Forest in England, where animals are all privately owned but live for long periods of time in "wild" conditions in undeveloped, often public , landed. Such animal owners often pay a fee for shepherding rights.
Breeds
The concept of pure bloodstock and controlled breeding registers has become very important and important in modern times. Sometimes the pure race horses are inappropriately or inaccurately called "pure horse". Thoroughbred is a certain type of horse, while "pure race" is a horse (or other animal) with a pedigree determined by the breed's registry. Horse races are horse groups with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, appearance, or disposition. These inherited traits are produced from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. Early examples of people practicing selective horse breeding are Bedouins, who have a reputation for careful practices, safeguarding their genealogy of Arab horses and placing great value on pure lineages. The pedigree was originally transmitted through oral tradition. In the fourteenth century, the Carthusian monk in southern Spain kept a very large bloodline of the bloodline still found today on the Andalusian horses.
Breeds develop because of the need for "functioning forms", the need to develop certain characteristics to perform certain types of work. Thus, a powerful but smooth breed like Andalusia develops like a horseback riding with a knack for dressing. Heavy draft horses were developed from the need to do demanding agricultural jobs and pull heavy trains. Other horse races are developed specifically for light farm work, trains and road works, various sports disciplines, or just as pets. Some breeds develop over the centuries through other breeds, while others descend from one sire foundation, or other limited or limited limited bloodstock foundation. One of the earliest formal applicants is the General Jilbab for Racing Dogs, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation's foundation for breeds. There are more than 300 breeds of horses in the world today.
Interaction with humans
Around the world, horses play a role in human culture and have been doing it for thousands of years. Horses are used for recreational activities, sports, and work purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were nearly 59,000,000 horses in the world, with approximately 33.5 million in America, 13.8 million in Asia and 6.3 million in Europe and smaller parts in Africa and Oceania. It is estimated there are 9.5 million horses in the United States alone. The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the US economy of more than $ 39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is more than $ 102 billion. In the 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries chose the horse as the fourth pet in the world.
Communication between humans and horses is paramount in any horse-riding activity; to assist the horse process is usually driven with a saddle on their backs to help the rider with balance and position, and the bridle or headgear associated to help the rider in maintaining control. Sometimes horses are driven without saddles, and sometimes horses are trained to perform without bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also moved, requiring armor, reins, and some vehicles.
Sports
Historically, equestrians hone their skills through games and races. Horseback riding entertained the crowd and honed the much needed horseback riding skills in combat. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, come from military training, which focuses on the control and balance of both horses and riders. Other sports, such as the rodeo, are developed from practical skills as required in farms and work stations. The hunting sport of horseback evolved from previous practical hunting techniques. Horse races of all kinds evolved from impromptu competition between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, which require special and demanding skills from horses and riders, result in the systematic development of breeds and specialized equipment for each sport. The popularity of riding sports for centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that should have disappeared after horses stopped being used in battle.
Horses are trained to drive or be driven in various sports competitions. Examples include jumping, dressage, three-day events, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeo, and fox hunting. The horse show, dating from medieval Europe, is held around the world. They host large classes, covering all installed disciplines and harnesses, as well as "hands-on" classes where horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformations. Assessment methods vary with discipline, but winning usually depends on the style and ability of the horse and the rider. Sports like polo do not judge the horse itself, but instead use horses as partners for human competitors as an essential part of the game. Although horses require special training to participate, the performance details are not assessed, only the result of the actions of the rider - whether it gets the ball through a goal or other task. Examples of this partnership sport between humans and horses include jousting, where the ultimate goal is for one rider to release the other, and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the goal is to catch a dead goat while riding a horse.
Horse racing is a major equestrian sport and international industry, watched in almost every country in the world. There are three types: "flat" races; steep, that is jumping race; and harness racing, where horses run or pacing while pulling a driver on a light little wagon known as sulky. The main part of the economic interests of horse racing lies in the gambling associated with it.
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has been developed to replace them completely. For example, installed police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol and crowd control duties. Cattle ranches still require horsemen to collect cattle scattered in remote, uneven areas. Search and rescue organizations in some countries rely on teams installed for people, especially pedestrians and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicle disruption to vulnerable soils, such as nature reserves. They can also be the only form of transport permitted in the wilderness area. Horses are calmer than motor vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park guards or goalkeepers can use horses for patrols, and horses or mules can also be used to clear roads or other jobs in rugged terrain where vehicles are less effective.
Although engines have replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and donkeys are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes about 27 million animals working in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivation and logging can be done efficiently with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuels are being used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of experimental animals such as horses. Horse felling reduces damage to soil structures and reduces damage to trees due to more selective logging.
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to revive much of their historical work goals. Horses are used, complete with authentic equipment or carefully reproduced replicas, in a variety of live historical actions from certain historical periods, especially recreation of famous battles. Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries like the UK still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalties and other VIPs to and from certain significant cultural events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as Budweiser Clydesdales, which is seen in parades and other public arrangements, a team of draft horses that pulls a beer cart similar to that used before the invention of a modern motorized truck.
Horses are often seen on television, movies, and literature. They are sometimes shown as the main characters in a movie about a particular animal, but also used as a visual element that ensures the accuracy of the story of history. Both live horses and iconic horses are used in advertisements to promote products. Horses often appear in symbols of weapons in symbols, in various poses and equipment. The mythology of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Norse, includes references to both normal horses and those with additional wings or limbs, and some myths also call horses to draw trains from the Moon and the Sun. The horse also appears in a 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac associated with the Chinese calendar.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities get favorable results from associations with horses. Riding therapy is used to mentally and physically stimulate people with disabilities and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased confidence, and a greater sense of freedom and independence. The benefits of equestrian activity for the disabled have also been recognized by the addition of riding events to the Paralympic Games and the recognition of the para-riding event by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). Hippotherapy and therapeutic horse riding is the name for different physical, occupational and speech therapy strategies that utilize horse movements. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses horse movements to improve the cognitive, coordinating, balance, and motor abilities of their patients, while horse riding therapy uses special riding skills.
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they are really up or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated therapy" is a form of experience psychotherapy that uses horses as animal companions to help people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those undergoing major changes in life. There is also an experimental program that uses horses in prison settings. Horse exposure seems to improve prisoner behavior and help reduce recidivism when they leave.
Warfare
Horses have been used in battle for most historical records. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare was between 4000 and 3000 BC, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread at the end of the Bronze Age. Although mechanization has replaced horses as a weapon of war, horses are still visible today in limited military use, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transportation activities in rough terrain areas where motor vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by Janjaweed militia in War in Darfur.
Products
Horses are raw materials for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts of horse massacre as well as materials collected from live horses.
Products collected from live horses include horse milk, used by people with large horse herds, like Mongols, who let it ferment to produce a mustache. Horse blood was once used as food by Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it as a proper source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horse's blood allows the Mongols to ride for a long time without stopping to eat. The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogen extracted from the urine of a pregnant horse ( pre gnant mar es' ur in e), and previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. Horsetail hair can be used to create bow for string instruments such as violin, violin, cello, and double bass.
Horse meat has been used as food for human and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and the subject of political controversy on others. Horsehide skin has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, balls, and baseball gloves. Horse nails can also be used to produce animal glue. Horse bones can be used to make tools. In particular, in Italian cooking, a horse's tibia is sharpened into a probe called spinto, which is used to test the pig's (hog) readiness as it heals. In Asia, saba is a horse ship used in the production of a mustache.
Cares
Horses are grazing animals, and their main source of nutrients is good quality forages from straw or grasslands. They can consume about 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry food every day. Therefore, an adult horse weighing 450 kilograms (990 pounds) can eat up to 11 pounds (24 pounds) of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed like grains are fed in addition to pasture or straw, especially when the animal is very active. When the grains are fed, the horse nutritionist recommends that 50% or more of the weight-based animal diet should keep looking for food.
Horses need an abundant supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 gallons US (38 liters) to 12 gallons US (45 liters per day). Although horses are adapted to live outdoors, they need protection from wind and rainfall, which can range from warehouses or simple dwellings to intricate cages.
Horses require routine nail care from the farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a special veterinarian or horse dentist. If horses are kept in a barn, they need daily exercise routines for their physical and mental health. When turning out, they need a sturdy fence and are well preserved to be safe. Regular care also helps to help the horse maintain good health from the underlying hair and skin coats.
See also
- Glossary of terms
References
Source
Further reading
External links
- Horses at EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica
- "Ancient horse bones produce the oldest DNA sequence"
- Ã, "Horses". New International Encyclopedia . 1905.
- Ã, "Horses". EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica (issue 11). 1911.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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