In religion, ethics, philosophy, and psychology " good and evil " is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with the influence of Manichaean and Ibrahim religions, evil is usually regarded as a good dualistic antagonistic dispute, where good must win and evil must be defeated. In a culture with Buddhist spiritual influence, good and evil are considered part of the antagonistic duality that must be overcome by reaching . Nyat? which means emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil in two. defying principle but not reality, emptying their duality, and attaining unity.
Crime, in the general context, is the absence or opposite of what is described as being good. Often, evil is used to show deep immorality. In certain religious contexts, evil is described as a supernatural power. The definition of evil varies, as does the motive analysis. However, elements commonly associated with crime involve disproportionate behaviors involving expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or omission.
Modern philosophical questions of good and evil are incorporated into three main areas of study: Meta-ethics of good and evil, normative ethics of how we should behave, and Applied ethics on certain moral issues.
Video Good and evil
History and etymology
Each language has a good expression in the sense of "having the desired rights or qualities" (?????) and bad in the sense of "undesirable". The sense of moral judgment and the difference "right and wrong, good and bad" is a universal culture.
Ancient world
In ancient eastern Persia nearly three thousand years ago a religious philosopher called Zoroaster simplified the ranks of the early Iranian gods into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) in conflict.
This idea developed into a religion that gave birth to many sects, some of whom embraced extreme dualistic beliefs that the material world should be shunned and the spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas affect many ancient religions that teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'union with God') can be achieved by practicing philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (such as the extent possible for listener , total for initiates ) and diligently seek wisdom by helping others.
Similarly, in ancient Egypt, there was the concept of Ma'at, the principle of justice, order, and cohesion, and Isfet, the principle of chaos, chaos, and decay, with the first being the power and principles that society sought. realizing where the latter is like that undermines society. This correspondence can also be seen reflected in ancient Mesopotamian religion also in the conflict between Marduk and Tiamat.
Classic world
In Western civilization, the basic meaning of ????? and ?????? were "bad, cowardly" and "good, brave, capable", and their absolute significance appeared only about 400 BC, with Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular Democritus. Moralism in this absolute sense combines in Plato's dialogue, along with the emergence of monotheistic thought (especially in Euthyphro, which reflects on the concept of piety (as a moral absolute). This idea was further developed in the Antiquity End by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and the Father of the Church.
This development from relative or habit to absolute is also evident in terms of ethics and morality both derived from the term for "regional custom", Greek ???? and Latin customs , respectively (see also siÃÆ' Â ° r ).
Medieval
Medieval theology was largely formed by St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Thomas Aquinas. According to the classic definition of St. Augustine of Hippo, sin is "a word, deed, or desire contrary to the eternal law of God." [3] [4]
Many medieval Christian theologians expand and narrow down the basic concepts of Good and evil until finally there are some sometimes complicated definitions such as:
- personal preferences or subjective judgments on any matter that might get praise or punishment from religious authorities
- religious obligations arising from divine law leading to holiness or condemnation
- generally accepted standards of cultural behavior that might increase group survival or wealth
- legal or natural behavior that causes strong emotional reactions
- statute laws that enforce legal obligations
Modern ideas
Today the basic dichotomy often breaks down along these lines:
- Baik is a broad concept often associated with life, charity, continuity, happiness, love, or justice.
- Crime is often associated with deliberate and deliberate misconduct, discrimination designed to harm others, humiliation of persons designed to reduce the psychological need and dignity, harm, and unnecessary or indiscriminate acts of violence.
The modern English word evil (Old English yfel ) and the original words are like German language ÃÆ'Ã… "bell and Dutch is widely thought to be derived from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic form of * ubilaz , comparable to Hittite huwapp - ultimately from Proto- Indo- European Form * wap - and suffixed the form of the class-zero * up-elo - . Other later Germanic forms include the Middle English evel , ifel , ufel , Old Frisian evel (adjectives and nouns), Old Saxon ubil , Old German High ubil , and Gothic ubils .
The nature of being good has been given a lot of care; one of which is that kindness is based on love, bonding, and natural affection that begins in the early stages of personal development; Another is that goodness is the product of knowing the truth. Differences in view also exist why evil can arise. Many religious and philosophical traditions claim that evil behavior is a deviation resulting from imperfect human conditions (eg "the Fall of Man"). Sometimes, evil is associated with the existence of free will and human agency. Some argue that evil itself is basically based on ignorance of truth (ie, human value, holiness, divinity). Various Enlightenment thinkers have accused the opposite, pointing out that evil is learned as a consequence of the tyrannical social structure.
Maps Good and evil
The theory of moral goodness
Chinese moral philosophy
In Confucianism and Taoism, no direct analogues of good and evil are challenged, although the reference to demonic influence is common in Chinese folk religion. Confucianism's main concern is with proper social relationships and appropriate behavior for educated or superior people. Crime will be in accordance with wrong behavior. Still less it maps to Taoism, regardless of the centrality of dualism in the system, but the opposite of the basic virtues of Taoism (compassion, moderation, and humility) can be summed up to be an analogue of evil in it.
Western Philosophy
Pyrrhonism
Pyrrhonism holds that good and evil do not exist by nature, which means that good and evil do not exist in the things themselves. All good and evil judgments relative to those who make judgments.
Spinoza
Benedict de Spinoza menyatakan:
1. Well, I understand what we know is useful to us 2. With evil, on the contrary I understand what we know prevents us from having something good.
Spinoza assumes a quasi-mathematical force and declares this further proposition which is intended to prove or demonstrate from the above definition in section IV of his book Ethics :
- Proposition 8 " Knowledge of goodness or evil is nothing but the influence of joy or sorrow as far as we are aware. "
- Proposition 30 " Nothing can be evil through what is shared with our nature, but the extent of evil to us is against us.
- Proposition 64 " Knowledge of crime is inadequate knowledge. "
- The natural consequence " Therefore, if the human mind does not have enough ideas, it will not form the idea of ​​evil. "
- Proposition 65 " According to the guidance of reason, of two good things, we will follow the greater good, and the two evil, follow the less. "
- Proposition 68 " If men are born free, they will not form the concepts of kindness and evil as long as they are free. "
Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche, in the rejection of Judeo-Christian morality, discusses this in two works, Beyond Good and Evil and In Moral Genealogy, where it basically says that non-good functional nature has changed socially into a religious concept of evil by a weak and oppressed mass slave mentality that hates their (strong) master. He also criticized morality by saying that many people who consider themselves immoral act only from cowardice (wanting to do evil but fear the consequences).
Psychology
Carl Jung
Carl Jung, in his book Philip Zimbardo
In 2007, Philip Zimbardo suggested that people can act in an evil way as a result of collective identity. This hypothesis, based on previous experience of the Stanford prison trial, is published in The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How a Good Person Changes Crimes .
Religion
BahÃÆ'¡'ÃÆ' Faith
The BahÃÆ'¡'ÃÆ' Faith asserts that evil does not exist and that it is a concept for lack of good, just as cold is a state without heat, darkness is a state of no light, forgetfulness of memory, ignorance of lack of knowledge. All this is a condition that is lacking and has no real existence.
Thus, crime is absent, and relative to humanity. `Abdu'l-Bahá, the founding father of the religion, in Some Answered Questions states:
"But doubts occur in the mind - that is, the scorpions and the snakes are poisonous - Are they good or bad, because they are creatures? Yes, a scorpion is evil in relation to humans; snakes are evil in relation to humans; with themselves, they are not evil, because their poisons are their weapons, and with their sting they defend themselves. "
Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true reality. Because God is good, and after creating creation, he affirms it by saying it is good (Genesis 1:31) evil can not have true reality.
Buddhism
The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and enlightenment, so good separation vs. evil does not have a direct analogue in it. One can, however, conclude from the Buddha's general teachings that the cause of the catalyzed suffering is what fits within this belief system with 'evil'.
Practically this can refer to 1) three selfish emotions - desire, hatred and stupidity; and 2) their expression in physical and verbal actions. See ten unpleasant acts in Buddhism . In particular, evil means harming anything or hindering the cause of happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and true enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi).
"What is evil? Kill is evil, lying is evil, defamatory is evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to stick to false doctrine is evil: all these things are evil. the root of evil? The desire is the root of evil, the illusion is the root of evil. "Gautama Siddhartha, founder of Buddhism, 563-483 BC.
Hinduism
In Hinduism the concept of Dharma or truth clearly divides the world into good and evil, and clearly explains that war must be waged occasionally to build and protect the Dharma, this war called Dharmayuddha. This good and evil division is very important both in the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, the main emphasis in Hinduism is on bad acts, not bad people. The sacred text of the Hindus, the Bhagavad Gita, speaks of the balance between good and evil. When this balance is extinguished, the divine incarnation comes to help restore this balance.
Sikhism
In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of ​​evil changed depending on one's position on the path to liberation. In the early stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may appear to be separate apart. However, once a person's spirit evolves to the point where he sees it very clearly, the idea of ​​evil disappears and the truth is revealed. In his writings, Master Arjan explains that, since God is the source of all things, then what we believe to be evil must also come from God. And since God is essentially a source of absolute goodness, nothing really evil can come from God.
However, Sikhism, like many other religions, does not include a list of "disadvantages" from which humiliating misery, corruption, and negative appear. This is known as the Five Thieves, so called because of their tendency to obscure the mind and mislead someone from prosecution of true action. This is:
- Moh, or Attachment
- Lobh, or Greed
- Karodh, or Wrath
- Kaam, or Lust
- Ahankar, or Egotism
The one who surrenders to the temptations of the Five Thieves is known as "Manmukh", or someone who is selfish and without virtue. On the contrary, "Gurmukh, who grew in their admiration of divine knowledge, rose above the deputies through high-practicing Sikhism's virtues:
- Rent, or selfless service to others.
- Nam Simran, or meditation on the divine name.
Islam
There is no concept of absolute evil in Islam, as a fundamental universal principle independent of and equal to good in a dualistic sense. In Islam, it is considered important to believe that all are from God, whether it is considered good or bad by the individual; and things that are perceived as bad or bad are natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by a human free will to disobey God's commands. See Satan (Islam).
According to Ahmadiyya's understanding of Islam, evil has no positive existence in itself and is only a lack of good, just as darkness is the result of a lack of light.
Judaism
In Judaism, no individual can be defined categorically, really "good" or "evil." Judaism recognizes the psychological complexity of man. God gave the Torah as a guide to overcome evil. The general theme of medieval Jewish philosophy is that people who do good deeds will be rewarded at olam haba .
Judaism has two opposing attitudes toward the existence of evil. In one interpretation, evil is not real, it is not part of God's creation, but arises through the bad actions of man. In another interpretation, evil was created by God because God created everything and advised otherwise to engage in dualism, and is therefore in conflict with the core Judaic belief in monotheism.
Christianity
Evil according to the Christian worldview is any action, thought, or attitude that is contrary to God's character or will. This is demonstrated through the laws given in the Old and New Testaments. Therefore, evil in the Christian worldview is contrasted with and contrary to God's character or God's will. This evil manifests itself through the deviation from the character or the will of God. Similarly, whether in the Christian world's view is any action, thought or attitude consistent with the character or will of God, for God is good, the highest good.
Christian theology drew its evil concepts from the Old and New Testaments. The Christian Bible trains "the dominant influence over the idea of ​​God and evil in the Western world." In the Old Testament, evil is understood as contradictory to God and something incompatible or inferior like an angel leader who falls Satan In the New Testament, the Greek word poneros is used to indicate non-conformity. , while kakos is used to refer to the opposition to God in the human realm. Officially, the Catholic Church extracted its understanding of evil since the canonical age and the Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas, who in Summa Theologica defines evil in the absence or privacy of goodness. The French-American theologian Henri Blocher describes evil, when seen as a theological concept, as "an unjustifiable reality." In common language, evil is 'something' that occurs in an experience that should not be. "
In Mormonism, mortal life is seen as a test of faith, in which one's choice is central to the Plan of Salvation. View Agency (LDS Church). Evil is what makes one not discover the nature of God. It is believed that one must choose not to be evil to return to God.
Christian Science believes that evil comes from a misunderstanding of the goodness of nature, which is understood to be inherently perfect from the right (spiritual) perspective. Misunderstanding of the reality of God leads to the wrong choice, called evil. This leads to the rejection of separate forces being the source of evil, or God as the source of evil; on the contrary, the appearance of evil is the result of a false concept of goodness. Christian scholars argue that even the most wicked man does not pursue evil for himself, but from the false point of view that he will attain some kind of good in this way.
Zoroastrianism
In Persian early Zoroastrianism, the world was the battlefield between the god Ahura Mazda (also called Ormazd) and the spirit of Malaya Angra Mainyu (also called Ahriman). The final resolution of the struggle between good and evil should occur on Judgment Day, where all living beings will be guided through the fire bridge, and the wicked will be cast away forever. In the belief of Afghanistan, angels and saints are sent to help us reach the path to goodness.
Meta-ethics is the study of fundamental questions about the nature and origin of good and evil, including the investigation of good and evil, and the meaning of evaluative language. In this case, meta-ethics need not be associated with an investigation of how others see goodness, or affirm what is good.
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Theories that are intrinsically good
A satisfactory formulation of goodness is invaluable because it enables one to build a good life or society with a dependable deduction, elaboration, or prioritization process. One can answer the ancient question, "How should we live?" among many other important related questions. It has long been thought that this question can be answered well by examining what should make something worthwhile, or in what source of value it is.
Transcendental Realism
One attempt to define kindness describes it as belonging to the world with transcendental realism. According to this claim, talking about the good is talking about something real that exists within the object itself, regardless of that perception. Plato supports this view, in his expression that there are things like the eternal form or idea, and that the greatest idea and essence of being is goodness, or goodness. The good is defined by many ancient Greeks and other ancient philosophers as a perfect and eternal idea, or a blueprint. The good is the right relationship between all that exists, and it is in the mind of the Divine, or some heavenly realm. The good is the harmony of a just political community, love, friendship, an orderly human spirit of virtue, and a right relationship with the Divine and Nature. The characters in Plato's dialogue mention the many virtues of a philosopher, or a lover of wisdom.
A theist is a person who believes that the Supreme Existence exists or the deity exists (monotheism or polytheism). Therefore, a theist can claim that the universe has a purpose and value according to the will of the creator that is beyond human comprehension. For example, Thomas Aquinas - a supporter of this view - believes that he has proved the existence of God, and the right relationship that man should have toward the divine first cause.
The monotheists may also expect unlimited universal love. Such expectations are often translated as "beliefs," and the wisdom itself is largely defined in some religious doctrines as a knowledge and understanding of innate goodness. The concept of innocence, spiritual purity, and salvation is also linked to a concept of being in, or returning to, a state of goodness - which, according to the various teachings of "enlightenment", is close to the state of holiness (or Godliness ).
Perfectionism
Aristotle believed that virtue comprised the realization of the unique potential for humanity, such as the use of reason. This view, called perfectionism, was recently retained in the modern form by Thomas Hurka.
A completely different form of perfectionism has emerged in response to rapid technological change. Some techno-optimists, especially transhumanists, recognize forms of perfectionism in which the capacity to determine good fundamental values ​​and trade, expressed not by humans but by software, human genetic engineering, artificial intelligence. Skeptics state that instead of perfect goodness, it will only be the appearance of the perfect good, which is reinforced by persuasion technology and perhaps the brute force of the escalation of violent technology, which will cause people to accept such rulers or rules written by them.
The Welfarist Theory
Welfarist value theory says good things are like that because of its positive effect on human well-being.
Subjective theories of wellbeing
It is hard to find out where such immaterial properties as "goodness" can be in the world. A counterproposal is to find value in people. Some philosophers go further by saying that if some circumstances do not tend to evoke the desired subjective state in a self-conscious being, then it can not be good.
Most philosophers who think goods should create the desired mental state also say that the goods are the experiences of self-aware beings. These philosophers often distinguish experience, which they call intrinsic goodness, from things that seem to lead to experience, which they call "attached" goods. Failing to distinguish both leads to a subject-object issue where it is not clear who evaluates what object.
Some theories illustrate no higher collective value than maximizing pleasure for the individual (s). Some even define goodness and intrinsic value as a pleasure experience, and bad as a pain experience. This view is called hedonism, the monistic value theory . It has two main varieties: simple, and Epicurean.
simple hedonism is the view that physical pleasure is the highest good. However, the ancient philosopher Epicurus used the word 'pleasure' in a more general sense that encompassed the various states from happiness to satisfaction. Contrary to popular caricatures, he appreciates the pleasures of mind for body pleasure, and advocates moderation as the surest path to happiness.
Jeremy Bentham The Principles of Morals and Legislation prioritizes goods by considering pleasure, pain and consequences. This theory has far-reaching effects on public affairs, up to and including today. A similar system was later named Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. More broadly, the utilitarian theory is an example of Consequentialism. All utilitarian theories are based on the maxim of utility , which states that good is whatever gives the greatest happiness to the greatest number . It follows from this principle that what brings happiness to a large number of people, is good.
The benefit of tracing both for pleasure and pain is that both are easy to understand, both in themselves and in others. For hedonists, an explanation for assisting behavior may come in the form of empathy - the ability of a person to "feel" the pain of others. People tend to appreciate gorilla life more than mosquitoes because gorillas live and feel, making it easier to empathize with them. This idea is brought forward in view of the ethical relationship and has spawned an animal rights movement and part of the peace movement. The impact of sympathy on human behavior is compatible with the views of the Enlightenment, including David Hume's attitude that the notion of self with unique identity is an illusion, and that morality ultimately leads to sympathy and feelings for others, or the implementation of moral underlying consent. assessment.
The view adopted by James Griffin tries to find a subjective alternative to hedonism as an intrinsic value. He argues that the satisfaction of one's information desire is well-being, does this desire really bring the happiness of an agent. In addition, this preference must be relevant to life, that is, contribute to the success of one's life as a whole.
The satisfaction of desire can occur without the agent's awareness of the satisfaction of desire. For example, if a man wants his legal will to be put into effect after his death, and that is, then his desires have been satisfied even though he will never experience or know it.
Meher Baba proposes that it is not the satisfaction of desire that motivates the agent but rather "the desire to be free from the restrictions of all desires, experiences and actions that increase the shackles of bad desire, and experiences and actions that tend to free the mind from restricting the desire is good." Through good action , then, that the agent becomes free of selfish desires and attains a state of well-being: "The good is the ultimate relationship between selfishness developing and dying." Selfishness, which was originally the father of evil tendencies, became through the good deeds of his own defeat. entirely replaced by a good tendency, selfishness is transformed into selflessness, that is, the selfishness of the individual loses itself in the universal interest. "
Welfare goal theory
The notion that the highest good exists and can not be ascertained but globally measured is reflected in various ways in economics (classical economy, green economy, welfare economy, gross national happiness) and science (positive psychology, morality) welfare measure theory, all of which focus on the various ways of assessing progress toward that goal, the so-called original progress indicator. Thus, modern economics reflects a very ancient philosophy, but quantitative or other calculations or processes based on cardinality and statistics replace a simple sequence of values.
For example, both in the economy and in the wisdom of the people, the value of something seems to increase as long as it is relatively rare. However, if it becomes too rare, it often leads to conflict, and can reduce collective value.
In classical political economy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, and in his criticism by Karl Marx, human labor is seen as the main source of all new economic values. This is an objective theory of value (see value theory), which links value to real production costs, and ultimately spends time on human labor (see also law of value). This contrasts with the theory of marginal utility, which argues that the value of labor depends on subjective preferences by consumers, which, however, can be studied objectively.
The value of the labor economy can be technically assessed in terms of value or utility or commercially in terms of exchange rates, prices or production costs (see also labor), but the value can also be socially valued based on contributions to wealth and welfare.
In a non-market society, labor can be valued primarily in terms of skills, time, and output, as well as moral or social criteria and legal obligations. In the market society, labor is valued economically primarily through the labor market. The price of labor may then be determined by supply and demand, by strike or legislation, or by legitimate or professional entry requirements into employment.
Middle-level theory
Conceptual metaphorical theories oppose the conception and subjective and objective meanings of value and meaning, and focus on the relationship between the body and other important elements of human life. Consequently, conceptual metaphorical theories treat ethics as an ontology problem and the problem of how work values ​​are negotiated from this metaphor, rather than the application of some strict abstractions or impasse between parties who have no way of understanding their respective views..
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Philosophical questions
Universality
The fundamental question is whether there is a universal and transcendent definition of evil, or whether the crime is determined by a person's social or cultural background. C. S. Lewis, in The Abolition of Man , states that there are certain actions that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder. However, many instances where rape or murder are morally influenced by the social context that questions this. Until the mid-19th century, the United States - along with many other countries - practiced the form of slavery. As is often the case, those who violate moral boundaries stand to benefit from the practice. Arguably, slavery is always the same and evil objectively, but the man with the motivation for breaking will justify the action.
The Nazis, during World War II, considered the genocide acceptable, as did Hutu Interahamwe in the Rwandan genocide. However, one may point out that actual offenders may avoid calling for their genocidal action, because the objective meaning of any action that is accurately described by the word is to falsely assassinate a select group of people, which is an action that at least their victims will understand to be evil. Universalists consider crimes independent of culture, and are entirely associated with actions or intentions. So while the ideological leaders of Nazism and Hutu Interhamwe accept (and consider it morally) to commit genocide, the belief in genocide as essentially or universally crime states that those who incite genocide this is actually evil. Other universalists may argue that while evil is always evil, those who do so may not be entirely evil or entirely good entities. Saying that someone who has stolen a candy, for example, becomes very evil is an untenable position. However, universalists may also argue that one can choose a career that is obviously evil or a good one, and the genocidal dictatorship clearly falls on the first side.
Views of evil tend to fall into one of the four opposing camps:
- Moral absolutism states that good and evil are fixed concepts established by gods or gods, nature, morality, common sense, or other sources.
- Amoralism claims that good and evil are meaningless, that there is no moral element in nature.
- Moral relativism states that standards of good and evil are merely local cultural products, customs, or prejudices.
- Universal moralism is an attempt to find a compromise between absolutist morality, and a relativist view; universalism claims that morality is only flexible to one degree, and that what is really good or evil can be determined by examining what is generally considered evil among all human beings.
Plato writes that there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are many ways to commit evil, which can therefore have far greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other capable beings.
Usability as a term
One school of thought that there is no evil person, and that only action is considered to be evil. Psychologist and mediator Marshall Rosenberg claims that the root of violence is the concept of crime or crime. When we refer to someone as evil or evil, Rosenberg claims, it triggers a desire to punish or cause pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the people we are losing. He cites the use of the language in Nazi Germany as the key to how Germans can do something for other humans that they normally would not do. He connects the concept of evil with our judicial system, which seeks to create justice through punishment - punishment justice - punishment seen as bad or wrong. He compares this approach to what he finds in a culture where evil ideas do not exist. In such a culture when someone is hurting others, they are believed to be in harmony with themselves and their community, seen as sick or ill and actions are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relationship with themselves and others.
Psychologist Albert Ellis agrees, in a school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, or REBT. He says the roots of anger, and the desire to harm someone, are almost always associated with variations of implicit or explicit philosophical beliefs about other human beings. He further claimed that without holding a variant of covert or blatant beliefs or assumptions, the tendency to use violence in many cases is less likely.
American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck on the other hand, describes the crime as militant ignorance . The original Judeo-Christian concept of sin is a process that makes a person lose the mark and does not achieve perfection. Peck argues that while most people are aware of this at least to some extent, those who are actively evil and militants reject this awareness. Peck describes evil as a kind of evil self-righteousness that results in the projection of evil against certain innocent victims (often children or others in a relatively powerless position). Peck regards the people he calls evil trying to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self-deception) and view this as very different from the absence of a clear consciousness in sociopath.
According to Peck, the bad guy:
- Consistently deceiving oneself, with a view to avoiding guilt and maintaining a self-perfection image
- Deceiving others as a consequence of their own fraud
- Psychologically projecting his crime and sin to a very specific target, scapegoating the target while treating others normally ("their insensitivity to them is selective")
- Generally hate with the pretense of love, for the purpose of self-deception like other people's scams
- Abuses political or emotional power ("imposing someone's wishes on others by overt or secret coercion")
- Maintain a high level of honor and continuity to do so
- Consistent in his sins. The wicked are defined not so much by the magnitude of their sins, but by their (destructive) consistency
- Can not think from the point of view of their victim
- Has a hidden intolerance to criticism and other forms of narcissistic injuries
He also thinks certain institutions may be evil, because of his discussion of the My Lai Massacre and the coverage it attempted to illustrate. With this definition, criminal acts and state terrorism will also be considered evil.
Required crime
Martin Luther argues that there are cases where a bit of evil is a positive good. He writes, "Seek out the peoples of your friends, drink, play, talk, and have fun.Someone sometimes has to sin from hatred and contempt for Satan, so not to give him a chance to make one thoroughly nothing... "
According to schools of certain political philosophies, leaders should be indifferent to good or evil, taking action only on practicality; this political approach was put forward by NiccolÃÆ'² Machiavelli, a 16th-century Florentine writer who advised politicians "... far safer to be feared than loved."
The theory of international relations of realism and neorealism, sometimes called realpolitik advises politicians to explicitly prohibit the absolute moral and ethical considerations of international politics, and to focus on self-interest, political sustainability, and political power, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining the world they see as amoral and dangerously explicit. Political realists usually justify their perspective by claiming a higher moral obligation specifically for political leaders, where the greatest crime is seen as a failure of the state to protect themselves and their citizens. Machiavelli writes: "... there will be traits that are considered good, if followed, will cause destruction, while other traits, are considered crimes which, if done, achieve security and prosperity for the Prince."
Anton LaVey, founder of the Church of Satan, is a materialist and claims that evil is good. He responds to the common practice of portraying sexuality or distrust as a crime, and his claim is that when the evil word is used to describe the pleasures of nature and the instincts of men and women, or the skepticism of the curious, it's really nice.
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Goodness and agency
Goodwill
John Rawls' book A Theory of Justice prioritizes social arrangements and goods based on their contribution to justice. Rawls defines justice as justice, especially in distributing social goods, justice is defined in terms of procedures, and seeks to prove that only institutions and good lives, if rational individual goods are considered fair. Rawls's important discovery is the starting position, a procedure in which one tries to make an objective moral decision by refusing to let personal facts of self enter into one's moral calculations.
One problem with Rawls's thinking is that it is too procedural. The just legal process of the kind used by Rawls may not leave enough room for judgment, and therefore, reduce the totality of goodness. For example, if two people are found to have orange, the standard fair procedure is to cut it in half and give half for each. However, if a person wants to eat it while the other wants his skin to spice up the cake, cutting it in two is clearly less good than giving his skin to a baker and feeding the core to the eater.
Applying procedural justice to the whole society therefore seems to have created a recognizable inefficiency, and therefore being unjust, and (with equality of justice with justice) unjust.
However, procedural processes are not necessarily burdensome in this way. Immanuel Kant, a great influence for Rawls, equally implements many procedural practices in the practical application of The Imperative Categorical , however, this is not merely based on 'justice'. Although the above-mentioned example of orange will not be something that requires the practical application of The Categorical Imperative, it is important to distinguish between Kant and Rawls, and note that Kant's Theory will not always lead to the same problem with Rawls - that is, a half cut of orange. Kant's theory promotes the acting of the Task - acting for Summum Bonum for him, Goodwill - and in fact encourages Judgment as well. What this means is that the outcome of the Orange distribution would not be such a simple process for Kant for the reason why it was wanted by both parties would have to be part of the Judgment process, thus eliminating the problem that Rawls' account suffers here.
Community spaces, life and ecology
Values ​​and people holding them seem to have to be under the ecosystem. If so, then what kind of creatures can legitimately apply the word "good" to an entire ecosystem? Who will have the power to assess and assess ecosystems as good or bad? By what criteria? And with what criteria will ecosystems be modified, especially larger ones such as atmosphere (climate change) or oceans (extinction) or forests (deforestation)?
"Left on Earth" as the most basic value. While the green ethicist has been very candid about it, and has developed the theory of Gaia philosophy, biofilia, bioregionalism that reflects that, the question is now universally recognized as central in determining value, eg. the "value of the Earth" economy for humanity as a whole, or "value of life" that is not the whole Earth or human. Many come to the conclusion that without assuming the continuation of the ecosystem as a universal good, with its accompanying goodness such as biodiversity and ecological wisdom it is impossible to justify operational requirements such as the sustainability of human activity on Earth.
One response is that humans should not be limited to Earth, and can use them and continue. A counter argument is that only a small percentage of humans can do this - and they will be singled out by the ability to technological escalation in others (eg, the ability to create large spaceships to escape from the planet, and simultaneously fend off people others trying to prevent them). Another argument is that extraterrestrial life will encounter humans who fled and destroyed them as locust species. The third is that if there is no other suitable world to support life (and no extraterrestrials compete with humans to occupy them) it is futile to escape, and foolish to imagine that it would require less energy and skill to protecting the Earth as a habitat from what is needed to build some new habitats.
Thus, what remains on Earth, as a living being surrounded by a working ecosystem, is a fair statement about the most basic values ​​and virtues for every being we can communicate with. This axiomatic moral system does not seem to be actionable.
However, most religious systems recognize life after death and this increase is seen as a more fundamental good. In many other moral systems, too, remaining on Earth in a state lacking the honor or power of the self is less desirable - consider seppuku in bushido, kamikaze or the role of suicide attacks in Jihadist rhetoric. In all these systems, what remains on Earth may be no higher than the third place value.
The radical values ​​of environmentalism can be seen as very old or very new: that the only thing intrinsically good is a thriving ecosystem; individuals and society are merely instrumental, good just as a means to have a thriving ecosystem. The Gaia philosophy is the most detailed expression of this whole thought but deeply influenced by deep ecology and modern Green Party.
It is often claimed that the indigenous people never miss this view. Anthropological linguistics studies the connection between their language and the ecosystems in which they live, leading to differences in their knowledge. Very often, environmental cognition and moral cognition are not distinguished in these languages. Such a violation of nature for others, and Animism reinforces this by giving the "personality" of nature through myth. Anthropological value theory explores these questions.
Most people in the world reject the older ethics and local religious views. Yet the small community-based and ecological-centric views have gained popularity in recent years. In part, this has been attributed to a desire for ethical certainty. Such a deeply rooted definition of goodness will be invaluable as it enables one to build a good life or society with a process of deduction, elaboration or a reliable priority. Relying solely on local referrals one can verify for oneself, create more certainty and therefore less investment in protection, hedging and guarantee against the consequences of loss of value.
History and novelty
Events are often seen as something of value only because of the novelty in fashion and art. In contrast, cultural history and other antiques are sometimes seen as a value in and of themselves because they are age . The philosophers of both Will and Ariel Durant speak volumes with quotations, "Because the individual's sanity lies in the continuity of his memory, so that the sanity of the group lies in the continuity of his traditions: in any case, breaks in chains invite neurotic reactions" (The Lessons of History, 72).
Assessment of the value of old artifacts or history needs to be considered, especially but not exclusively: the value placed on having detailed knowledge of the past, the desire to have a real bond with the history of the ancestors, or the increasing value of rare merchandise market traditionally held.
Creativity and innovation and inventions are sometimes upheld as good fundamentals, especially in Western industrial societies - all of which imply novelty, and even the opportunity to profit from new things. Bertrand Russell is particularly pessimistic about creativity and thinks that knowledge develops faster than wisdom is certainly fatal.
Goodness and morality in biology
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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