Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what others are experiencing from within their frame of reference, ie the capacity to put themselves in the shoes of others. There are many definitions for empathy that encompass various emotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and somatic empathy.
Video Empathy
Etimologi
The English word empathy comes from the Ancient Greek word ???????? ( empatheia , meaning "physical affection or passion"). This, in turn, comes from ?? ( en , "in, at") and ????? ( pathos , "passion" or "suffering"). The term was adapted by Hermann Lotze and Robert Vischer to create the German word EinfÃÆ'¼hlung ("feeling into"), translated by Edward B. Titchener into the English term empathy. However, in modern Greek, ???????? means "envy," "enmity".
Alexithymia is a word used to describe the flaws in understanding, processing or describing emotion within oneself as opposed to another. This term comes from a combination of two Ancient Greek words: ????? ( alekso , meaning "push, evict, or protect") and ????? ( thymos , meaning "soul, like the center of emotions, feelings and thoughts"). So alexithymia literally means "keep your emotions away".
Maps Empathy
Definition
Empathy has many definitions that include various emotional states, including caring for others and having a desire to help them; experiencing emotions that match the emotions of others; distinguish what others think or feel; and make a less conspicuous distinction between self and others. It can also be understood as having a separate self-defeating and other blur.
It is also the ability to feel and share the emotions of others. Some believe that empathy involves the ability to match the emotions of others, while others believe that empathy involves a gentle heart towards others.
Having empathy can include having an understanding that there are many factors that go into decision making and cognitive thinking processes. Past experience has an influence on today's decision making. Understanding this allows a person to have empathy on an individual who sometimes makes illogical decisions for an issue that most people will respond with with a clear response. Damaged homes, childhood traumas, lack of parenting and many other factors can affect the connections in the brain that a person uses to make future decisions.
Martin Hoffman is a psychologist who studies the development of empathy. According to Hoffman everyone is born with the ability to empathize.
Compassion and sympathy are terms associated with empathy. Definitions vary, contributing to the challenge of defining empathy. Compassion is often defined as the emotion we feel when others need it, which motivates us to help them. Sympathy is a feeling of caring and understanding for someone in need. Some include in sympathy as empathic attention, feelings of concern for others, in which some scholars include the desire to see them better or happier.
Empathy also differs from pity and emotion. Pity is the feeling that others are in dire need of help because they can not fix their own problems, often described as "feeling sorry" for someone. Emotional contagion is when a person (especially an infant or member of a mass) typically "captures" the emotions that others show without having to admit this to happen.
Because empathy involves understanding the emotional state of others, the way it is characterized comes from the way the emotions themselves are characterized. If, for example, emotions are taken to be centrally characterized by physical feelings, then capturing the physical feelings of others will be the center of empathy. On the other hand, if emotions are more centered by a combination of beliefs and desires, then understanding these beliefs and desires will be more important for empathy. The ability to imagine yourself as someone else is a sophisticated imaginative process. However, the basic capacity to recognize emotions may be innate and can be achieved unconsciously. But it can be trained and achieved with varying degrees of intensity or accuracy.
Empathy always has "more or less" qualities. The case of an empathetic interaction paradigm, however, involves a person communicating an acknowledged recognition of the significance of a deliberate ongoing act of another person, the associated emotional state, and personal characteristics in a manner that can be tolerated by a recognized person. Accurate and tolerable recognition is a central feature of empathy.
The human ability to recognize the feelings of other people's bodies is related to one's imitative abilities, and seems to be based on innate ability to associate body movements and facial expressions that others see with proprioceptive feelings to produce the appropriate movements or expressions themselves.. Humans seem to make the same direct connection between the tone of voice and other expressions of sound and inner feelings.
In the field of positive psychology, empathy has also been compared with altruism and egoism. Altruism is a behavior intended to benefit others, while egoism is a behavior that is done for personal gain. Sometimes, when a person feels empathy with others, altruism takes place. However, many questions of whether or not this altruism action is motivated by selfish profits. According to a positive psychologist, people can be adequately moved by their empathy to altruism.
Gender differences
Literature generally indicates that women tend to be more empathic than men. On average, female subjects score higher than men in Empathy Quotient (EQ), while men tend to score higher on Systemizing Quotient (SQ). Both men and women with autistic spectrum disorder usually score lower on EQ and SQ (see below for more details about autism and empathy). However, a series of studies, using various neurophysiological measures, including MEG, spinal reflex stimuli, electroencephalography and the N400's paradigm have documented the overall gender differences in the human neuron mirror system, with female participants likely to show stronger motor resonances. of male participants. In addition, the studies mentioned above found that female participants tended to be higher on empathy steps of self-report disposition and that these measures were positively correlated with physiological responses. Other studies show no significant difference, and instead show that gender differences are the result of different motivations.
A review published in the journal Neuropsychologia found that women tend to be better at recognizing facial, expression, and emotional effects in general. Men only tend to be better at recognizing certain behaviors that include anger, aggression and threatening cues. A 2006 meta-analysis by researcher Rena A Kirkland in the journal Journal of North American Psychology found significant gender differences in favor of women in the "Read mind" test. The "Read mind" test is a measure of the continued ability of cognitive empathy in which Kirkland's analysis involves 259 studies in 10 countries. Another 2014 meta-analysis in Cognition and Emotion journals , found overall female benefits in non-verbal emotional recognition in 215 samples.
Using fMRI, neurologist Tania Singer suggests that empathetic nerve responses tend to be lower in men when observing "unfair" people experience pain. Analysis of the journal Neuroscience & amp; Biobehavioral reviews also found that, overall, there was a gender difference in empathy from birth, growing larger by age and which remained consistent and stable in life. Women, on average, are found to have higher empathy than men, while children with higher empathy regardless of sex continue to be higher in empathy during development. Further analysis of brain tools such as the event-related potentials finds that women who see human suffering tend to have higher ERP waves than men. Other investigations with similar brain devices such as the N400 amplitude were found, on average, N400 was higher for women in response to socially positively correlated situations with self-reported empathy. Structural fMRI studies have also found that women have larger gray matter volumes in the inferior posterior and anterior inferior frontal parietal cortex regions that correlate with mirror neurons in the fMRI literature. Women also tend to have a strong relationship between emotional and cognitive empathy. The researchers found that the stability of sex differences in these developments is unlikely to be explained by environmental influences but more likely to have some roots in human evolution and inheritance.
During prehistory, women are the primary caregivers and nannies of children, so this may have led to evolving neurological adaptations for women to be more aware and responsive to non-verbal expressions. According to Primary Caretaker Hypothesis , prehistoric men do not have selective pressures similar to that of primary nurses; so as this may explain modern day sex differences in emotional recognition and empathy.
Primary theories and empirical findings
Research that investigates the social response to natural disasters sees characteristics related to individuals who assist the victim. Researchers found that cognitive empathy, not emotional empathy, is predicted to help behavior against victims. Others have suggested that taking the perspective of others (cognitive empathy) allows these people to empathize with the victims without much inconvenience, while sharing the emotions of the victim (emotional empathy) can cause emotional stress, helplessness, blame the victim, and may eventually lead to avoidance rather than help.
Yet, despite this evidence for altruistic motivation induced by empathy, an egoistic explanation is still possible. For example, an alternative explanation for a problem-specific aid pattern might be that the sequence of events under the same problem condition first makes the subject sad when they empathize with the problem and then maintain or increase the subject's grief when they are later exposed to the same state. Consequently, negative negative aid models will predict substantial assistance among imaginary subjects under the same conditions that occur. An interesting question arises from such findings as to whether it is possible to have mixed motivations to help. If this is the case, simultaneous egoistic and altruistic motivations will occur. This will allow for more powerful grief-based motivation to obscure the effects of empathy-based altruistic motivation. The observed studies will then have lesser sadness than the more prominent altruistic motivations. Consequently, the relative strength of different emotional reactions, systematically related to the needs situation, can moderate the dominance of egoistic or altruistic motivation (Dovidio, 1990). But it has been shown that researchers in this field who have used very similar procedures sometimes get seemingly contradictory results. The superficial procedural differences as appropriate when manipulation is introduced can also lead to different results and conclusions. It is therefore important for future research to move toward greater standardization of measurement. Thus, an important step in resolving the current theoretical debate about the existence of altruism may involve achieving a common methodological foundation.
Contemporary neuroscience has enabled us to understand the neural basis of the human mind's ability to understand and process emotions. The current study allows us to look at the activation of mirror neurons and attempt to explain the basic process of empathy. By isolating the mirror neurons and measuring the neural base for reading the human mind and the ability to share emotions, science has come a step closer to finding reasons for reactions like empathy. Neuroscientists have found that people who score high on empathy tests have a very busy mirror neuron system in their brain (Dr. Christian Keysers). Empathy is sharing spontaneous influence, provoked by witnessing and sympathizing with the emotional state of others. In the way we reflect or replicate the emotional response we expect to feel in that condition or context, such as sympathy. Unlike personal suffering, empathy is not characterized by an aversion to the emotional response of others. In addition, empathizing with someone requires a clear sympathetic reaction in which personal pressure demands evasion from the sad. This distinction is important because empathy is associated with the sympathy of moral emotions, or empathetic attention, and consequently also prosocial or altruistic actions. Empathy leads to sympathy by definition unlike an overwhelming emotional response that turns into personal pressure and causes a setback from the troubles of others.
In empathy we sense what we believe to be the emotions of others, which make it both affective and cognitive by most psychologists. In this sense, passion and empathy promote prosocial behavior as we accommodate each other to feel the same emotions. For social beings, the negotiation of interpersonal decisions is as important as survival as it is able to navigate the physical landscape. Emotions motivate individual behaviors that help in solving communal challenges and guide group decisions about social exchange. In addition, recent research shows individuals who report grateful experiences often engage more frequently in prosocial behaviors. Positive emotions such as empathy or gratitude are related to a positive continuous state and these people are far more likely to help others than those who do not experience positive emotional states. Thus, the effects of empathy extend beyond those relating to the emotions of others, it is correlated with improvements in the positive state and the ability to help others. The size of empathy indicates that mirror neurons are activated during the emergence of sympathetic responses and the prolonged activation indicates an increased likelihood of helping others.
Another focus of investigation is how empathy manifests in education between teachers and learners. While there is general agreement that empathy is essential in educational settings, research has found that it is difficult to develop empathy in the trainee's teachers. According to one theory, there are seven components involved in the effectiveness of intercultural communication; empathy is found to be one of seven. This theory also states that empathy can be learned. However, research also suggests that it is more difficult to empathize when there are differences between people including status, culture, religion, language, skin color, gender, age and so on.
To achieve empathy between cultures, psychologists have used empathetic training. One study hypothesized that empathy training would increase the level of relational empathy measured among individuals in the experimental group when compared to the control group. The study also hypothesizes that empathetic training will improve communication among experimental groups, and that the perceived satisfaction with group dialogue will also increase among the experimental group. To test this, the researchers used the Hogan Empathic Scale, the Barrett-Lennard Relations Inventory, and the questionnaire. Using these measures, the study found that empathy training did not succeed in improving relational empathy. Also, communication and satisfaction among groups did not increase as a result of empathetic training. Although there seems to be no clear connection between empathy and relational empathy training, the study reported that "relational empathy training emerges to foster greater expectations for deep dialogical processes that result in different treatments in the depth of perceived communication".
The environment has become another interesting topic of study. Many theorize that environmental factors, such as parenting and relationships, play an important role in the development of empathy in children. Empathy promotes pro social relations, helps mediate aggression, and allows us to connect with others, all of which make empathy an important emotion among children.
A study conducted by Caroline Tisot looks at how various environmental factors affect the development of empathy in children. Parenting style, empathy of parents, and previous social experiences are seen. Children participating in the study were asked to complete an effective empathy measure, while the children's parents completed the Parenting Practices Questionnaire, which assessed parenting styles, and the Emotional Balanced Emotional scale.
The study found that some practices of parenting - as opposed to overall parenting style - contribute to the development of empathy in children. These practices include encouraging children to imagine the perspectives of others and teaching children to reflect on their own feelings. The results also show that the development of empathy varies based on the sex of the child and the parents. Father's warmth is found to be very important, and positively associated with empathy in children, especially in boys. Interestingly, however, maternal warmth is negatively associated with empathy in children, especially in girls.
It has also been found that empathy can be impaired due to trauma in the brain such as stroke. In most cases empathy is usually impaired if a lesion or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain. In addition it has been found that damage to the frontal lobes, which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can have a profound impact on a person's capacity to experience empathy towards other individuals. People suffering from brain injury also show lower levels of empathy based on previous studies. In fact, more than 50% of people suffering from traumatic brain injury report self deficit in their empathic capacity. Again, connecting this back to an early stage of emotional development, if emotional growth has been hampered at an early age due to various factors, empathy will struggle to occupy itself in the mindset of individuals as a natural feeling, as they themselves will struggle. to make peace with their own thoughts and emotions. This is again suggestive of the fact that understanding emotions alone is the key to being able to identify with the emotional states of other individuals.
Apps
The relationship of empathy-altruism also has an area for which empathy is perceived at the expense of other potential pro-social goals, thus triggering the type of bias. Researchers suggest that individuals are willing to act against the greater collective good or to violate their own moral principles of justice and justice if it will benefit someone who feels empathetic.
On a more positive note, individuals who are aroused by way of empathy can focus on long-term well-being rather than short-term only of those in need. The empathy-based socialization is very different from the current practice directed to the inhibition of egoistic impulses through internalized formation, modeling, and guilt. The therapeutic program built around facilitates an altruistic impulse by encouraging perspective and empathetic feelings allowing individuals to develop more satisfying interpersonal relationships, especially in the long run. At the social level, experiments have shown that altruism induced by empathy can be used to improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, even used to improve racial attitudes, actions against people with AIDS, homelessness, and even inmates. Such generated altruism has also been found to enhance cooperation in competitive situations.
Type
Affective and cognitive
Empathy is generally divided into two main components:
- Affective empathy , also called emotional empathy : the capacity to respond with emotions that are compatible with others mental condition. Our ability to empathize emotionally is based on emotional transmission: influenced by emotions or other people's passionate states.
- Cognitive Empathy : the ability to understand the perspective or mental state of others. The terms cognitive empathy and mind theory or mentalisation are often used synonymously, but because of the lack of studies comparing mind theories with the types of empathy, is this equivalent.
Although science has not yet agreed on the exact definition of this construction, there is consensus on this distinction. Affective and cognitive empathy are also independent of each other; someone who is deeply empathetic emotionally is not necessarily good at understanding the perspective of others.
Affective empathy can be divided into the following scale:
- Attentive attention : sympathy and affection for others in response to their suffering.
- Personal distress : feelings of unease and self-centered anxiety in response to the suffering of others. There is no consensus as to whether personal pressure is the basic form of empathy or not empathy. There may be aspects of development in this subdivision. Babies respond to the suffering of others by depressing themselves; only when they are 2 years old, they start responding in other oriented ways, trying to help, entertain, and share.
Cognitive empathy can be divided into the following scale:
- Perspective taking : the tendency to spontaneously adopt the psychological perspective of others.
- Fantasy : a tendency to identify with fictional characters.
- Tactical (or "strategic") empathy: the use of a deliberate perspective to achieve a particular desired goal.
Distribution
Differences in the distribution between affective and cognitive empathy have been observed under various conditions. Psychopathy and narcissism have been associated with disorders in affective but not cognitive empathy, whereas bipolar disorder and boundary properties have been associated with deficits in cognitive but not affective empathy. Autism spectrum disorders have been associated with various combinations, including deficits in cognitive empathy and deficits in both cognitive and affective empathy. Schizophrenia is also associated with deficits in both types of empathy. However, even in people without this condition, the balance between affective and cognitive empathy varies.
A meta-analysis of recent fMRI empirical studies suggests that different areas of the brain are activated during empathetic perceptions-empathy and cognitive-evaluative empathy. Also, a study with patients with different types of brain damage confirm the difference between emotional and cognitive empathy. In particular, the inferior frontal gyrus appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the ventromedial prefrontal gyrus appears to mediate cognitive empathy.
The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is the only measurement tool published to date that takes into account the multi-dimensional assessment of empathy. It consists of a self-report questionnaire of 28 items, divided into four 7-item scales that include subdivisions over affective and cognitive empathy.
Somatic
Somatic emphyhy is a physical reaction, perhaps based on the response of mirror neurons, in the somatic nervous system.
Development
At the age of two, children usually begin to display basic empathy behavior by having an emotional response that suits the emotional state of others. Even before, at the age of one year, babies have some basic empathy, in the sense that they understand it, just like their own actions, the actions of others have a purpose. Sometimes, toddlers will entertain others or show concern to them at the age of two. Also during the second year, toddlers will play a game of falsehood or "pretend" in an attempt to deceive others, and this requires the child to know what others believe before he can manipulate that belief. To develop these qualities, it is important to expose your child to face-to-face interactions and opportunities and take them away from an inactive lifestyle.
According to researchers at the University of Chicago who use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), children between the ages of 7 and 12 appear to naturally tend to feel empathy toward others who suffer. Their findings are consistent with previous fMRI research on empathy pain with adults. The study also found additional aspects of brain activated when children saw others deliberately injured by other individuals, including areas involved in moral reasoning.
Despite being able to show some signs of empathy, including trying to comfort a crying baby, from 18 months to two years, most children do not show the theory of mind completely until about the age of four. Mind theory involves the ability to understand that others may have different beliefs from themselves, and are considered to involve the cognitive component of empathy. Children usually become capable of passing the task of "false beliefs", considered a test of the theory of mind, around the age of four. Individuals with autism often find using very difficult mind theories (eg Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith, 1988, Sally-Anne test).
Maturation of empathy is a cognitive structural theory developed at Yale University School of Nursing and discusses how adults understand or understand the patient's personality. The theory, first applied to nurses and because it is applied to other professions, postulates three levels that have cognitive structure properties. The third and highest levels are regarded as the meta-ethical theories of the moral structure of care. Adults who operate with a level-III understanding synthesize a justice and care-based ethics system.
Individual differences
Empathy in the broad sense refers to the reaction of one individual to the emotional state of another. Recent years have seen an increase in movement toward the idea that empathy occurs from motor neuron imitation. But how do we explain individual differences in empathy? It can not be said that empathy is a unipolar construct but rather a set of constructs. In essence, not every individual responds equally and uniformly to different circumstances. The Empathy Concern Scale assesses feelings of sympathy and "other-oriented" concerns and the Personal Distress scale measures the "self-oriented" feeling of personal anxiety and anxiety. This combination of scales helps reveal things that may not be classified as empathy and broaden the narrow definition of empathy. Using this approach we can enlarge the basis of what it means to have empathetic qualities and create multi-faceted definitions.
Behavioral research and neuroimaging show that the two aspects underlying the personality dimensions of Extraversion and Agreeableness are related to empathic accuracy and increased brain activity in the two brain regions important for empathic processing (medial prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal intersections).
Genetics
Research shows that empathy is also partly genetically determined. For example, the ADRA2B elimination variant carrier shows more amygdala activation when viewing emotionally evocative images. The 5-HTTLPR gene appears to determine the sensitivity to negative emotional information and is also attenuated by the ADRA2b removal variant. The dual G variant of the OXTR gene is found to have better social skills and higher self-esteem. A gene located near LRRN1 on chromosome 3 then re-controls the human ability to read, understand, and respond to the emotions of others.
Neurological base
Research in recent years has focused on the possibility of brain processes that underlie empathetic experience. For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to investigate the functional anatomy of empathy. These studies have shown that observing the emotional state of others activates the part of the neural network involved in processing the same state in a person, whether it is disgust, touch, or pain. The study of the basics of empathetic nerves has received an increase in interest after the target paper published by Preston and Frans de Waal, following the discovery of mirror neurons in monkeys that shoot when the creature sees others performing acts as well as when they themselves do me.
In their paper, they argue that the present perceptions of the state of the object automatically activate the neural representation, and that this activation automatically primes or produces the corresponding autonomous and somatic responses (the idea of ​​perception-coupling-action), unless inhibited. This mechanism is similar to the general coding theory between perception and action. Another recent study provides evidence of a separate neural pathway that activates mutual suppression in different areas of the brain associated with "social" and "mechanical" task performance. These findings suggest that the cognition associated with reasoning about the "state of mind of another person" and the "causal/mechanical nature of inanimate objects" is suppressed nervously from occurring at the same time.
A recent meta-analysis of 40 fMRI studies found that affective empathy correlates with increased activity in the insula while cognitive empathy correlates with activity in the mid cingulate cortex and adjacent dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.
It has been suggested that the reflection behavior of motor neurons during empathy can help to multiply feelings. Such sympathetic acts can provide access to sympathetic feelings for others and, perhaps, trigger the emotions of kindness, forgiveness.
Empathy of anger and distress
Anger
The anger of empathy is emotion, a form of empathic sadness. Anger empathy is felt in situations where others are hurt by other people or objects. It is possible to see this form of anger as a pro-social emotion.
Anger empathy has a direct effect on the desire to help and punish. The anger of empathy can be divided into two sub-categories: the nature of empathetic anger and express empathic anger.
The relationship between empathy and anger responses to others has also been investigated, with two studies basically finding that the higher the perspective of a person who takes ability, the less angry they are in responding to provocations. However, empathetic attention does not significantly predict anger response, and higher personal pressure is associated with increased anger.
Distress
Empathy distress is a feeling of pain felt by others. This feeling can be transformed into empathic anger, feelings of injustice, or guilt. These emotions can be considered as pro-social, and some say they can be seen as motives for moral behavior.
Atypical responses
Atypical empathic responses have been linked to autism and certain personality disorders such as psychopathic, borderline, narcissistic, and schizophrenic personality disorders; behavioral disorders; schizophrenia; bipolar disorder; and depersonalization. Less empathy is also associated with sex offenders. It was found that offenders who grew up in an environment where they showed a lack of empathy and experienced the same type of violence, felt less empathy towards their victims.
Autism
The interaction between empathy and autism is a complex and sustainable field of research. Several different factors are proposed to be played.
A study of high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders finds an increased prevalence of alexithymia, a personality construct characterized by an inability to recognize and articulate emotional passion in a person or another person. Based on fMRI studies, alexithymia is responsible for the lack of empathy. The lack of empathetic attunement attached to alexithymic countries can reduce the quality and satisfaction of relationships. Recently, a study has shown that high-functioning autistic adults appear to have various responses to music that are similar to those of neurotypical individuals, including deliberate music use for mood management. Alexithymia's clinical treatment may involve using a simple associative learning process between music-induced emotions and their cognitive correlations. A study has shown that empathy deficits associated with the autism spectrum may be due to significant comorbidity between alexithymia and the condition of the autism spectrum rather than the result of social disturbance.
One study found that, relative to typically developing children, high-functioning autistic children showed reduced activity of the mirror neurons in the inferior frontal brain gyrus (pars opercularis) while mimicking and observing emotional expression. EEG evidence reveals that there is greater emphasis on the autonomous individual sensorymotor cortex. Activity in this area is inversely related to symptom severity in the social domain, suggesting that dysfunctional dysfunctional mirror systems may underlie social deficits and communication observed in autism, including impairments in mind and empathy. The mirror neuron system is essential for emotional empathy.
Previous research has shown that autistic individuals have disturbed theories of thought. The theory of mind is the ability to understand the perspectives of others. The terms cognitive empathy and the theory of mind are often used synonymously, but because of the lack of studies comparing mind theory with the type of empathy, it is not clear whether this is equivalent. The theory of mind depends on the temporal lobe structure and the prefrontal cortex, and empathy, the ability to share the feelings of others, depends on the sensorimotor cortex as well as the limbic and para-limbic structures. The lack of a clear distinction between mind theory and empathy may have resulted in an incomplete understanding of their empathic abilities with Asperger's syndrome; many reports of individual empathic deficits with Asperger's syndrome are actually based on disorders in the theory of mind.
Research has found that individuals on the autism spectrum report lower self-care levels, indicating a lack of response or no consolation to a person suffering, and reporting levels of personal distress similar to or higher than controls, which may be due to the high egocentrism that found in autistic individuals. The combination of the autism spectrum that reduces empathic attention and increased personal pressure can lead to overall empathy reduction. Professor Simon Baron-Cohen points out that those who have classical autism often do not have cognitive and affective empathy. However, other studies have found no evidence of impairment in the ability of autistic individuals to understand the basic objectives or targets of others; on the contrary, the data suggest that disorders are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering the viewpoints of others. Research also shows that people with Asperger's syndrome may have problems understanding other people's perspectives in terms of mind theory, but the average person with the condition exhibits the same empathetic attention as, and higher personal pressure, rather than control. The presence of individuals with high personal distress on the autism spectrum has been offered as an explanation for why at least some people with autism seem to have an increased emotional empathy, although increased personal pressure may be the effect of increased egocentrism, emotionally dependent empathy. on the activity of mirror neurons (which, as described earlier, have been found to be reduced in those with autism), and empathy in people on the autism spectrum is generally reduced. The empathy deficit in the autism spectrum disorder may show more disturbance in the ability to take the perspective of others, while empathy deficits in psychopathy may show more disturbance in response to the emotions of others. This "disturbance of empathy" further highlights the importance of the ability to empathize by illustrating some of the consequences for the development of impaired empathy.
The theory of empathy-systemization (E-S) shows that people can be classified according to their ability along two independent dimensions, empathize (E) and systemization (S). This capability can be deduced through tests that measure a person's Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ). Five different "brain types" can be observed among the population by score, which must correlate with differences at the neural level. In E-S theory, autism and Asperger's syndrome are associated with empathy below average and above average or systemization. The E-S theory has been extended into the Extreme Male Brain theory, which shows that people with autism spectrum conditions are more likely to have "Extreme Type S" brain types, according to above-average systemization but challenged empathy.
It has been shown that men are generally less empathetic than women. The Extreme Male Brain (EMB) theory proposes that individuals on the autistic spectrum are characterized by disorders in empathy due to gender differences in the brain: in particular, people with autism spectrum conditions exhibit excessive male profiles. A study has shown that some aspects of autistic neuroanatomy seem extreme to a typical male neuroanatomy, which may be influenced by elevated fetal testosterone levels rather than gender itself. Other studies involving brain scans in 120 men and women showed that autism affects men's and women's brains differently; women with autism have a brain that seems closer to non-autistic men than women, but the same type of difference is not observed in men with autism.
Psychopathic
Psychopaths are personality disorders that are partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behavior, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including superficial emotions and lack of remorse and empathy. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) lists the antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and social disability disorder, stated that this has been called or included what is called a psychopath.
A large number of studies have shown that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to signs of distress (eg facial expressions and vocal fear and grief), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortex regions, which may partially cause recognition disorders and autonomic decline. response to the expression of fear, and empathetic disturbance. Studies in children with psychopathic tendencies also indicate such a relationship. The underlying biological surface to process expression of happiness is functionally intact in psychopaths, although less responsive than controls. The neuroimaging literature is unclear whether the deficit is specific to certain emotions such as fear. Several recent fMRI studies have reported that emotional perceptual deficits in psychopathy permeate throughout emotions (positive and negative).
A recent study of psychopaths found that, in certain circumstances, they can consciously empathize with others, and that their empathic reactions begin in the same way for control. Psychopathic criminals are scanned by the brain while watching a video of someone who hurts other individuals. Psychopathic empathic reactions begin in the same way as controls when they are instructed to empathize with an aggrieved individual, and pain-related brain areas are activated when psychopaths are asked to imagine how an individual's feelings are harmed. This study shows how psychopaths can change empathy at will, which will enable them to be heartless and captivating. The research team says it is still unknown how to turn this deliberate empathy into the spontaneous empathy that most people have, although they propose the possibility of bringing psychopaths closer to rehabilitation by helping them activate their "empathy switch". Others claim that regardless of the results of the study, it remains unclear whether the psychopathic experience of empathy is equal to control, and also questioned the possibility of designing a therapeutic intervention that would make the empathic reaction more automated.
The work done by Professor Jean Decety with a large sample of imprisoned psychopaths offers additional insight. In one study, a psychopath was scanned when viewing a video clip depicting people who were deliberately injured. They were also tested on their responses to see a short video of the facial expression of pain. The participants in the high psychopathy group showed significantly less activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala and gray periaqueductal part of the brain, but more activity in the striatum and insula when compared with control participants. In a second study, individuals with psychopathy showed a strong response in pain-affective areas of the brain when taking a self-imagining perspective, but failed to recruit neural circuits that were activated in control during other imagined-perspective perspectives - particularly ventromedial prefrontal cortices and amygdala - that could contribute on their lack of empathetic attention.
It is thought that people who have high psychopathy levels will have sufficient cognitive empathy levels but will lack their ability to use affective empathy. People who score high on psychopathy measurements tend to be less representative of affective empathy. There is a strong negative correlation that shows that psychopathy and affective empathy are closely related. The DANVA-2 describes people who score high on a psychopathic scale no less in recognizing emotions in facial expressions. Therefore, individuals who score high on psychopathy and are not lacking in the ability to speak perspective but have no mercy and negative incidents that occur in others.
Although studies show deficits in emotional perceptions and imagine others in pain, professor Simon Baron-Cohen claims psychopathy is associated with intact cognitive empathy, which would imply an intact ability to read and respond to behaviors, social cues and what others feel. Psychopathy, however, is associated with a decrease in the other major components of empathy - affective (emotional) empathy - which includes the ability to feel the suffering and emotions of others (what scientists would perceive as emotion of transmission), and they are in such condition not depressed by the suffering of their victims. Dissociations such as affective and cognitive empathy have indeed been shown for aggressive offenders. Those with autism, on the other hand, are often distracted both affective and cognitive empathy.
Other conditions
Research shows atypical empathic responses are also correlated with various other conditions.
Borderline personality disorder is characterized by extensive behavior and interpersonal difficulties arising from emotional and cognitive dysfunction. Dysfunctional social and interpersonal behavior has been shown to play a significant role in the intense emotional way people with borderline personality disorder react. While individuals with impaired personality thresholds may show their emotions too much, some authors have suggested that they may have the ability to compromise to reflect mental states (cognitive empathy disorders), as well as disturbed theories of thought. People with impaired personality thresholds have proven to be very good at recognizing emotions in people's faces, showing increased empathic capacity. Therefore, it may be that cognitive empathy disorders (the capacity to understand the experiences and perspectives of others) may explain borderline personality disorder of the individual's tendency to interpersonal dysfunction, while "hyper-emotional empathy" may account for the observed emotional overdelivery. on these individuals. One major study confirmed that patients with impaired personality disorder were significantly impaired in cognitive empathy, but there were no signs of decreased affective empathy.
One of the diagnostic criteria of narcissistic personality disorder is lack of empathy and reluctance or inability to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others.
Characteristics of schizophrenic personality disorders include cold emotions, detachments, and impairments affecting the inability to be empathetic and sensitive to others.
A study conducted by Jean Decety and colleagues at the University of Chicago suggests that subjects with aggressive behavior disorder generate an unusual empathic response to see others in pain. Subjects with behavioral disorders are at least as responsive as controls to the pain of others but, unlike controls, subjects with behavioral disorders indicate strong and specific activation of the amygdala and ventral striatum (areas that permit general arousing effects of rewards), but are impaired. activation of the neural regions involved in self-regulation and metacognition (including moral reasoning), in addition to the reduced processing between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.
Schizophrenia is characterized by affective empathy disorders, as well as severe cognitive and empathy disorders as measured by Empathy Quotient (EQ). This empathetic disorder is also associated with impairments in social cognitive tasks.
Bipolar people have been observed to have cognitive empathy disorders and mind theories, but to increase affective empathy. Although cognitive flexibility is impaired, planning behavior remains intact. It has been suggested that dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex can cause cognitive empathy disorders, since cognitive empathy disorders have been linked to the performance of neurocognitive tasks involving cognitive flexibility.
Lieutenant-Colonel Dave Grossman, in his book On Killing, points out that army training artificially creates depersonalisation to the army, suppressing empathy and making it easier for them to kill other humans.
Practical issues
The capacity to empathize is a respected trait in society. Empathy is considered a motivational factor for proactive selfless behavior, while lack of empathy is associated with antisocial behavior.
Proper empathic involvement helps one understand and anticipate the behavior of others. Regardless of the automatic tendency to recognize the emotions of others, one may also deliberately engage in empathetic reasoning. Two common methods have been identified here. An individual can simulate a fictitious version of the beliefs, desires, characters and contexts of other individuals to see what emotional feelings are provoked. Alternatively, an individual can simulate emotional feelings and then access the environment for the appropriate reasons for emotional feelings that are appropriate for a particular environment.
Some research shows that people are more capable and willing to empathize with the person most like himself. In particular, empathy increases with similarity in culture and living conditions. Empathy is more likely to occur among individuals whose interactions are more frequent. (See Levenson and Reuf 1997 and Hoffman 2000: 62). The measure of how well one can deduce the specific content of the thoughts and feelings of others has been developed by William Ickes (1997, 2003). Paul Bloom's anti-empathy crusader claims emotional involvement of empathy leads to racism and prejudice. In 2010, the team led by Grit Hein and Tania Singer gave two groups of men's bracelets according to the football team they supported. Each participant received a light electric shock, then watched the other through the same pain. When the bracelet fits, both brains light up: with pain, and empathic pain. If they support the opposing team, the observer turns out to have little empathy. Bloom calls the use of empathy and social intelligence as an improper tool that can lead to petty actions and parochialism, he further defies the findings of conventional supportive research as gremlins of a standard bias. He ensures empathy as a whole process that limits us to morality and if low empathy makes a bad person, wrapped up in a bad group, many will have Asperger or autism and reveal their own brother is very autistic. Early indicators for lack of empathy:
- Often find yourself in a prolonged argument
- Form an initial opinion and defend them vigorously
- Thinking that others are too sensitive
- Refuse to listen to another viewpoint
- Blame others for errors
- Not listening while talking to
- Grasping grudges and difficulty forgiving
- Inability to work within team
There is a concern that the emotional background of empathy alone can influence or change the emotions of what they feel to others (eg Goleman 1996: p.Ã, 104). It is evident that societies that promote individualism have lower empathy skills. Empathy is not a process that tends to give a certain assessment of the emotional state of others. It is a skill that is gradually developed throughout life, and that increases the more contact we have with the empathic. Empathizers report finding it easier to take the perspective of others when they are experiencing the same situation, as well as experiencing greater empathic understanding. Research on whether similar experiences in the past made empathy more accurately mixed.
Ethical issues
The extent to which a person's emotions can be seen in general, or that are recognized together have significant social consequences. The recognition of empathy may or may not be welcomed or desirable socially. This is especially true when we recognize the emotions that people have toward us during real-time interactions. Based on the affinity of the metaphor by touch, the philosopher Edith Wyschogrod claims that the proximity posed by empathy increases the potential vulnerability of either party. The precise role of empathy in our relationships with others is highly dependent on circumstances. For example, Tania Singer says that doctors or nurses must be objective against the emotions of others, not to invest too much of their own emotions for others, at the risk of draining their own power. In addition, awareness of the limitations of empathetic accuracy is wise in parenting situations.
Discipline Approach
Philosophy
Ethics
In his 2008 book, How to Make Good and Always Right Decisions: Solve Riddle of Right and Wrong , author Iain King presents two reasons why empathy is the "essence" or "DNA" of True and false. First, he argues that empathy uniquely has all the characteristics we can know about the ethical point of view - including that it is "partly independent," and thus provides a source of motivation that is partly in us and partly outside, as moral motivation seems to be. This allows empathy based judgment to have sufficient distance from personal opinions to be counted as "moral". His second argument is more practical: he argues, "Empathy for others really is the path to value in life", and thus the means by which selfish attitude can become moral. By using empathy as the basis for an ethical system, King is able to reconcile ethics based on consequences with virtue morals and account-based actions about right and wrong. His empathetic system has been adopted by some Buddhists, and is used to overcome some practical problems, such as when to lie, and how to develop a neutral cultural rule for romance.
In the 2007 book The Ethics of Care and Empathy, philosopher Michael Slote introduces a care-based ethical theory based on empathy. The claim is that moral motivation, and should, stem from the basis of empathic responses. He claims that our natural reaction to the situation of moral meaning is explained by empathy. He explains that the limits and obligations of empathy and in turn morality are natural. These natural obligations include a greater empathic and moral obligation to family and friends, along with a temporal and physical distance account. In near-temporal and physical distances, and with family or friends, our moral obligations seem to be stronger for us than with strangers in the distance naturally. Slote explains that this is because of our empathy and our natural empathic ties. He further adds that the wrong actions if and only if they reflect or show lack of empathy attention developed completely for others on the agency side.
Phenomenology
In phenomenology, empathy describes the experience of something from the other person's point of view, without the confusion between self and others. This refers to a sense of agency. In the most basic sense, this is the experience of other people's bodies and, in this sense, this is the experience of "my body there". However, in many other ways, the experience is modified so that what is experienced is experienced as the experience of others; in experiencing empathy, what is experienced is not my "experience", even though I experienced it. Empathy is also regarded as a condition of intersubjectivity and, thus, the source of the constitution of objectivity.
History
Some postmodern historians such as Keith Jenkins in recent years have debated whether it is possible to empathize with people from the past. Jenkins argues that empathy only enjoys a privileged position in the present because it fits harmoniously with the dominant liberal discourse of modern society and can be attributed to John Stuart Mill's concept of reciprocal freedom. Jenkins argues that the past is a foreign country and because we do not have access to epistemological conditions by the age that has passed, we can not empathize.
It is impossible to foresee the effects of empathy in the future. Past subjects can take part in the present by what is called a historic object. If we watch from a fictional past, it can tell the present with a tense future, as happens with the false prophecy of deception. There is no way to tell the present with the means of the past.
Evolution
More and more studies on animal behavior and neuroscience claim that empathy is not limited to humans, and in fact as old as mammals, or perhaps older. Examples include dolphins that save humans from drowning or from shark attacks. Professor Tom White points out that reports of cetaceans have three times more spindle cells - nerve cells that convey empathy - in their brain as we do may mean very social animals have a great awareness of each other's feelings.
A large number of behaviors have been observed in primates, both in captivity and in the wild, and particularly on bonobos, reported as the most empathetic of all primates. A recent study has shown the prosocial behavior induced by empathy in rodents.
Rodents have been shown to show empathy for cagemates (but not strangers) in pain. One of the most widely read studies on the evolution of empathy, which deals with the mechanism of action-the perception of nerves (PAM), is what Stephanie Preston and de Waal. This review postulates a bottom-up empathy model that links all levels, from state match to perspective perspective. For the University of Chicago neurobiologist Jean Decety, [empathy] is not specific to humans. He argues that there is strong evidence that empathy has a deep evolutionary, biochemical and neurological basis, and even the most advanced form of empathy in humans is built on a more fundamental form and remains connected to the core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social attachment, and parental care. The core neural circuits involved in empathy and caring include the brain stem, the amygdala, the hypothalamus, the basal ganglia, the insula and the orbitofrontal cortex.
Context of evolutionary problem
Since all the definitions of empathy involve elements for others, all the differences between egotism and empathy fail at least for creatures that lack self-awareness. Since the first mammal has no difference in self-awareness between self and others, as shown by most mammals that fail on a mirror test, the first or more primitive evolutionary mammals of them can not have a default egoism context requiring an empathy mechanism to be exceeded.. However, there are many examples in artificial intelligence research showing that simple reactions can perform a de facto function that is not owned by an agent, so this does not contradict evolutionary accounts of parental care. However, such a mechanism will be adapted to self-distinction and other creatures that have been dependent on some form of behavior that benefits each other or their descendants will never be able to evolve into a form of self-distinction which necessitates a special evolution that is not involved and not - a mechanism which can be resisted to maintain empathetic behavior in the face of self-differences, and the fundamental neurological differences between egoism and empathy can not exist in any species.
Psychotherapy
Heinz Kohut is the main introduction to the principle of empathy in psychoanalysis. The principle applies to unconscious material collection methods. The possibility of not applying the principle is given in healing, for example when you have to take into account another principle, that is reality.
In evolutionary psychology, attempts to explain pro-social behavior often cite the existence of empathy in individuals as possible variables. While the precise motives behind complex social behavior are difficult to distinguish, "the ability to position oneself and experience the events and emotions as experienced by that person" is the definitive factor for a truly altruistic behavior according to Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis. If empathy is not felt, social exchange (what's in it for me?) Replaces pure altruism, but if empathy is felt, an individual will help with action or with words, regardless of whether it's within them to do so and even if the cost exceeds the prize potential.
Education
An important target of the teaching and learning method (LBT) is to systematically train and, in each lesson, teach empathy. The students must send new content to their classmates, so they must constantly reflect the mental processes of other students in the classroom. In this way it is possible to develop step by step student feelings for group and network reactions. Carl R. Rogers pioneered research in psychotherapy and effective teaching which supports that empathy coupled with unconditional positive things or caring for students and authenticity or conformity are the most important traits for a therapist or teacher. Research and other publications by Tausch, Aspy, Roebuck. Lyon, and meta-analysis by Cornelius-White, reinforcing the importance of person-centered traits.
Business and management
In the 2009 Wired to Care book, strategy consultant Dev Patnaik argues that a major disadvantage in contemporary business practice is the lack of empathy within large corporations. He
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