Self-esteem reflects the subjective subjective emotional evaluation of the individual as a whole from his own worth. This is a decision made by the individual as an attitude toward oneself. Self-esteem includes self-belief, (eg, "I am competent", "I am worthy"), as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and Mackie (2007) define it by saying "Self-concept is what we think of self, self-esteem, is a positive or negative evaluation of self, like how we feel it."
Self-esteem is appealing as a psychological construct of sociality because researchers have conceptualized it as a predictor that influences certain outcomes, such as academic achievement, happiness, satisfaction in marriage and relationships, and criminal behavior. Self-esteem may apply specifically to a particular dimension (eg, "I believe I am a good writer and feel good about it") or a global level (eg, "I believe I am a bad person, and feel bad about myself in general"). Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as a characteristic of eternal personality ("nature" of self-esteem), although normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist. The synonym or nearly-synonym of self-esteem includes many things: self-esteem, self-esteem, self-esteem, and self-integrity.
Video Self-esteem
Histori
The identification of self-esteem as a different psychological construct is thought to originate from the work of philosopher and psychologist, geologist, anthropologist William James (1892). James identifies several dimensions of self, with two levels of hierarchy: the process of knowing (called 'I-self') and the self-generated knowledge (the 'Me-self'). The self-observation and storage of that observation by I-self creates three types of knowledge, which are collectively responsible for oneself, according to James. It is the material self, the social self, and the spiritual self. The social self is closest to self-esteem, which consists of all the characteristics recognized by others. The material self consists of the representation of body and property, and the spiritual self of the descriptive representation and the evaluative disposition of the self. This view of self-esteem as a collection of individual attitudes toward oneself persists to this day.
In the mid-1960s, sociologist Morris Rosenberg defined self-esteem as a feeling of self-worth and developed the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), which became the most widely used scale for self-esteem in the social sciences.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the behaviorist movement minimized the introspective study of mental processes, emotions and feelings, which were replaced by objective research through experiments on behavior observed in relation to the environment. Behaviorism puts humans as animal subjects for reinforcements, and suggests putting psychology as an experimental science, similar to chemistry or biology. As a result, clinical trials on self-esteem are ignored, because behaviorists consider the idea to be less responsible for rigorous measurements. In the mid-20th century, the emergence of humanistic phenomenology and psychology led to renewed interest in self-esteem. Self-esteem then takes a central role in self-actualization and in the care of psychic disorders. Psychologists begin to consider the relationship between psychotherapy and personal satisfaction of a person with high self-esteem that is useful for this field. This causes new elements to be introduced to the concept of self-esteem, including the reasons why people tend to feel less valuable and why people are desperate or unable to face their own challenges.
Today, the core self-evaluation approach includes self-esteem as one of four dimensions consisting of one's own fundamental judgment of self, together with the locus of control, neuroticism, and self-efficacy. The concept of core self-evaluation as first examined by Judges, Locke, and Durham (1997), has since proven to have the ability to predict job satisfaction and job performance. Self-esteem may be important for self-evaluation.
Effects on public policy
The importance of self-esteem has gained the support of several government and non-governmental groups that began around the 1970s, so one can speak of the movement of self-esteem. This movement can be used as an example of promising evidence that psychological research can have an effect on the formation of public policy. The idea underlying the movement is that low self-esteem is at the root of the problem for the individual, making it the root of the problem and social dysfunction. A leading figure of the movement is a psychologist, Nathaniel Branden was quoted as saying, "[I] can not think of a single psychological problem - from anxiety and depression, fear of intimacy or success, to uniting battery or child abuse - not traced back to problem low self-esteem ".
Self-esteem is believed to be a cultural phenomenon of individualistic Western society because low self-esteem does not occur in collectivist countries like Japan. The idea of ​​low self-esteem and its many negative consequences led California lawmaker John Vasconcellos to work to create and fund the Task For Personal and Personal Responsibility and Social Responsibility in California in 1986. Vasconcellos argues that this task force can combat many of the country's problems from crime and teenage pregnancy to underachieving and polluting schools. He compared the increase in self-esteem to provide vaccines for the disease: it could help protect people from being overwhelmed by life's challenges.
The task force established committees in many districts of California and set up a clerical committee to review the available literature on self-esteem. The committee found a very small association between low self-esteem and assumed consequences, finally showing that low self-esteem is not the root of all social problems and not as important as the previous committee had thought. However, authors of papers that summarize the literature review still believe that self-esteem is an independent variable that affects major social problems. The task force was dissolved in 1995, and the National Council for Self-Esteem and then the National Association for Self-Esteem (NASE) was established to take on the task force mission. Vasconcellos and Jack Canfield were part of his advisory council in 2003, and members of his Masters Coalition included Anthony Robbins, Bernie Siegel and Gloria Steinem.
Maps Self-esteem
Theory
Many early theories suggest that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist Abraham Maslow included self-esteem in the hierarchy of human needs. He describes two different forms of "reward": the need to respect others in the form of recognition, success, and admiration, and the need for self-esteem in the form of self-love, confidence, skill, or talent. The respect of others is believed to be more fragile and easier to lose than self-esteem inside. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of self-esteem, individuals will be encouraged to look for it and can not grow and gain self-actualization. Maslow also stated that the healthiest expression of self-esteem "is manifest in the respect we deserve for others, more than famous, fame and praise." Modern theories of self-worth explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain high self-esteem. The Sociometric Theory states that self-esteem evolves to examine the level of one's status and acceptance in one's social group. According to the Theory of Terror Management , self-esteem serves to protect and reduce anxiety about life and death.
Self-esteem is important because it shows ourselves how we see our way and our sense of personal worth. Thus, it affects our ways and acts in the world and the way we relate to others.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987), an advocate of humanistic psychology, theorized about the origin of many people's problems that they hate themselves and consider themselves worthless and unlovable. This is why Rogers believes in the importance of providing unconditional acceptance to clients and when this is done can increase client confidence. In a therapy session with a client, he offers whatever positive things happen. Indeed, the concept of self-esteem approached since then in humanistic psychology as an inalienable right for everyone, is summarized in the following sentence:
Measurement
Self-esteem is usually assessed using self-reporting inventory.
One of the most widely used instruments, Rosenberg's self-esteem scale (RSES) is a 10-item self-esteem score scale that requires participants to show their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. Alternative sizes, The Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery on a variety of topics and asks the subject whether they rate someone as equal or not equal to themselves. If the subject's answers indicate a solid self-esteem, the scale assumes they are also adjusted. If that answer expresses some inner embarrassment, it considers them vulnerable to social aberrations.
The implicit measures of self-esteem came into use in the 1980s. This depends on the indirect measure of the cognitive processes deemed to be associated with implicit self-esteem, including the Letter Name of the Letter. Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of the assessment process. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, psychologists present stimuli relevant to participants and then measure how quickly one identifies positive or negative stimuli. For example, if a woman is given self-relevant stimuli from a woman and a mother, the psychologist will measure how quickly she identifies negative, evil, or positive words, either.
Cross-age development
Experience in one's life is the main source of how self-esteem develops. In the early years of a child's life, parents have a significant influence on self-esteem and can be considered the main source of positive and negative experiences a child will have. The unconditional love of parents helps a child develop a stable sense of attention and respect. These feelings translate into later effects on self-esteem as the child grows older. Students in primary schools with high self-esteem tend to have caring, authoritative parents, supportive adults who set clear standards for their children and enable them to voice their opinions in decision making.
Although research has so far reported only a warm and supportive (especially authoritative and permissive) parenting style correlation with children with high self-esteem, this nurturing style can easily be perceived as having some causal effect in the development of self-esteem. Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self-esteem include being listened to, spoken with respect, receiving proper attention and affection and having recognized achievements and errors or failures recognized and accepted. Experiences that contribute to low self-esteem include harsh criticism, physical, sexual or emotional abuse, neglect, ridicule or ridicule or are expected to be "perfect" all the time.
During school age, academic achievement is a significant contributor to the development of self-esteem. A student who consistently achieves success or consistently fails will have a strong academic influence on their individual self esteem. Social experience is another important contributor to self-esteem. When children go to school, they begin to understand and recognize the difference between them and their classmates. Using social comparison, children judge whether they are doing better or worse than classmates in different activities. This comparison plays an important role in shaping the child's self-esteem and influencing the positive or negative feelings they have about themselves. As children go through adolescence, peer influence becomes much more important. Teenagers make their own judgments based on their relationship with close friends. A successful relationship among friends is essential for the development of high self-esteem for children. Social acceptance brings self-esteem and produces high self-esteem, while the rejection of peers and loneliness brings self-doubt and produces low self-esteem.
Adolescence shows an increase in self-esteem that continues to increase in young adulthood and middle age. The decline seen from middle age to old age with various findings about whether it is a small or large decrease. The reasons for variability may be due to differences in health, cognitive abilities, and socioeconomic status in old age. There is no difference found between men and women in the development of their self-esteem. Some cohort studies have shown that there is no difference in the journey of self-esteem living between generations due to social changes such as class inflation in education or the presence of social media.
A high degree of mastery, low risk taking, and better health are ways to predict higher self-esteem. In terms of personality, emotional, stable, extroverted, and meticulous individuals experience higher self-esteem. This predictor has shown us that self-esteem has properties like nature by staying stable over time such as personality and intelligence. However, this does not mean it can not be changed. Hispanic teenagers have a slightly lower self-esteem than their black and white counterparts, but then a slightly higher rate by age 30. African Americans have a sharp increase in self-esteem in adolescence and young adulthood compared to whites. However, during the elderly, they experience a faster decline in self-esteem.
Shame
Shame can be a contributor to those who have low self esteem issues. Feelings of shame usually occur because of situations in which the social self is evaluated, such as poor performance that is socially valued. Poor performance leads to a higher response of psychological conditions that indicate a threat to the social self, namely a decrease in social self-esteem and increased shame. This increased shame can be helped by self-pity.
The true self, the ideal self, and the dreaded self
There are three levels of development of self-evaluation in relation to the true self, the ideal self, and the dreaded self. The real, ideal, and feared self develops in children in a sequential pattern on a cognitive level.
- Moral Counting Stages: Individuals describe Forever Real, Ideal, and Dreaded with stereotyped labels, like "good" or "bad". Individuals describe their Ideal and Real Selves in terms of disposition to act or as behavior habits. The Dreaded Self is often described as being unsuccessful or having bad habits.
- The Development Phase of the Ego: Individuals describe their Ideal and Real Subtleties in terms of attitudes based on attitudes and actions. The Dreaded Self is often described as failing to meet social expectations or self-centeredness.
- Stage of Self-Understanding: Individuals describe their Ideal and Real Subtleties as having a uniform identity or character. Descriptions of the dreaded Focus of Self on failure to live the aspirations or expectations of one's role are often due to real-world problems.
This development brings increasingly complex and inclusive moral demands. Level 3 is where individual self-esteem can suffer because they do not feel as though they live up to a certain expectation. This feeling will adequately affect a person's self esteem with a greater effect that is seen when people believe that they become their Dreaded Self
Type
High
People with a healthy level of self-esteem:
- Firmly believe in certain values ​​and principles, and be prepared to defend them even when finding the opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in the light of the experience.
- Be able to act on what they consider to be the best option, trust their own judgment, and not feel guilty when others do not like their choices.
- Do not lose excessive worrying time about what happened in the past, or about what might happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intently.
- Fully trust their ability to solve problems, no hesitation after failure and difficulty. They ask for help from others when they need it.
- Think of themselves as equal in dignity to others, rather than inferiority or superiors, while accepting differences in a particular talent, personal prestige, or financial reputation.
- Understand how they become attractive and valuable to others, at least for those who have friendships.
- Reject manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.
- Accept and accept internal feelings and drives, whether positive or negative, the drive says to others only when they choose.
- Can enjoy a variety of activities.
- Be sensitive to the feelings and needs of others; respect the generally accepted social rules, and claim there is no right or desire to prosper at the expense of others.
- Can seek solutions and voice dissatisfaction without underestimating oneself or others when challenges arise.
Safe vs. defensive
One can have high self-esteem and hold it with confidence where they do not need assurance from others to maintain their positive self-views, while others with defensive, high self-esteem can still report positive self-evaluation on the Rosenberg Scale, such as all high self esteem individuals do; However, their positive self-image is fragile and vulnerable to criticism. Individuals with high defensive self-esteem internalize self-unconscious self-doubt and discomfort, causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they may receive. There is a need for constant positive feedback from others to these individuals to maintain their sense of self-worth. The need for recurring praise can be attributed to arrogant, arrogant behavior, or sometimes even an aggressive and hostile feeling to anyone questioning the individual's self-esteem, an example of a threatened egoism.
Implicit, explicit, narcissistic and threatened egotism
Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively spontaneously, automatically, or unconsciously. This contrasts with a clear self-esteem, which requires a more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both a clear self-esteem and an implicit pride are the proper subtypes of self-worth.
Narcissism is a disposition that may be possessed by people who represent excessive love for oneself. This is characterized by an increased view of self-esteem. Individuals who score high on narcissistic measures, Robert Raskin 40 True Items or False Test , are likely to vote correctly for statements such as "If I rule the world, it will be a much better place." There is only moderate correlation between narcissism and self-esteem; namely to say that an individual can have high self-esteem but low narcissism or can be a proud, annoying person and get high self-esteem and high narcissism.
The threatening egotism is characterized as a response to the criticism that threatens the narcissist's ego; they often react in hostile and aggressive ways.
Low
Low self-esteem can result from a variety of factors, including genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, mental health problems, socioeconomic status, significant emotional experience, peer pressure or bullying.
A person with low self-esteem can point out some of the following characteristics:
- severe self-criticism and dissatisfaction.
- hypersensitivity to criticism resentful of criticism and feeling of being attacked.
- Chronic doubt and excessive fear of error.
- Excessive desire to please and reluctance to disappoint the applicant.
- Perfectionism , which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.
- Neurotic guilt , inhabit or exaggerate past mistakes.
- Floating hostilities and general defense and irritability without direct cause.
- pessimism and general negative views.
- Envy , invidiousness, or general hatred.
- See temporary setbacks as permanent and irresistible conditions.
Individuals with low self esteem tend to be critical of themselves. Partly depends on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self-esteem. Others can measure their worth in terms of success: others will accept themselves if they succeed but will not if they fail.
Three statuses
This classification proposed by Martin Ross distinguishes three conditions of self-worth compared to "achievement" (victory, honor, virtue) and "anti-achievement" (defeat, shame, embarrassment, etc.) of the individual.
Shattered
Individuals do not consider themselves valuable or loved. They may be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or look at them like that, and they call their "anti-feat". For example, if they assume that being over a certain age is anti-feat, they define themselves by their anti-feat name, and say, "I'm old." They pity themselves. They insult themselves. They feel regret. They may become paralyzed by their sadness.
Vulnerable
Individuals have generally positive self-image. However, their self-esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti-feat (such as defeat, shame, embarrassment, discredit), consequently they are often nervous and regularly use defense mechanisms. The unique protection mechanisms of those with Vulnerable Self-Esteem may consist of avoiding decision making. Although these people may outwardly show great self-confidence, the underlying reality may be quite the opposite: self-confidence that clearly shows their increased fear of anti-feat traits and the fragility of their self-esteem. They can also try to blame others to protect their self-image from situations that will threaten them. They may use defense mechanisms, including trying to lose in games and other competitions to protect their self-image by openly breaking away from 'the need to win', and affirming the freedom of social acceptance they desperately want. In this deep fear of being not accepted by individual colleagues, they make a bad choice of life by making risky choices.
Strong
People with strong self-esteem have a positive self-image and sufficient strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-esteem. They are less afraid of failure. These people seem humble, cheerful, and this shows a certain strength not to boast of achievement and not to fear anti-feat action. They are able to fight with all their might to achieve their goals because, if anything goes wrong, their self-esteem will not be affected. They can admit their own mistakes precisely because their self-image is strong, and this recognition will not damage or affect their self-image. They live with a little fear of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general prosperity. However, no kind of self-esteem is indestructible, and because of a particular situation or circumstance in life, a person can fall from this level into other self-esteem conditions.
Contingent vs. non-contingent
Differences are made between the contingent (or conditional) self-esteem and the non-contingent (or unconditional).
Contingent pride comes from external sources, such as (a) what others say, (b) one's success or failure, (c) one's competence, or (d) self-esteem of contingents.
Therefore, contingent self-esteem is characterized by instability, unreliable, and vulnerability. People who lack a non-contingent self esteem are "prone to constant pursuit of self-worth." However, since the pursuit of a contingent self-esteem is based on acceptance of approval, it must fail. No one receives constant approval and disapproval often generates depression. Furthermore, the fear of rejection hampers activities in which failure is possible.
Non-contingent self-esteem is described as true, stable, and solid. It stems from the belief that a person is "an acceptable period, accepted before life itself, ontologically acceptable". The belief that a person is "ontologically acceptable" is to believe that one's acceptance is "the way things become without possibility". In this belief, as the theologian Paul Tillich explains, acceptance is not based on one's virtue. This is acceptance given " regardless of our guilt , not because we have no guilt ".
Psychiatrist Thomas A Harris drew theologian Paul Tillich for his classic I'm fine - you're okay work on non-contingent self-esteem. Harris translates Tillich "received" by vernacular "OK", a term that means "acceptable". The Christian message, Harris said, is not "YOU CAN GOOD, IF", "YOU ARE RECEIVED, unconditionally".
Self-reliant pride arises from the belief that one is ontologically accepted and accepted.
Importance
Abraham Maslow stated that psychological health is impossible unless the core essence of the person is basically accepted, loved and respected by others and by himself. Self-esteem enables people to face life with more confidence, virtue and optimism, and thus easily achieve their goals and self-actualization.
Self-esteem can make people believe that they deserve happiness. Understanding this is fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the development of positive self-esteem increases the capacity to treat others with respect, goodness and goodwill, thus benefiting rich personal relationships and avoiding destructive relationships. For Erich Fromm, the love of others and love for oneself is not an alternative. Conversely, the attitude of self-love will be found in all those who can love others. Self-esteem enables creativity in the workplace, and is a critical critical condition for teaching professions.
JosÃÆ'Â © -Vicente Bonet claims that the importance of self-esteem is evident because of the lack of self-esteem, he says, not losing the respect of others, but self-denial. Bonet claims that this corresponds to Major depressive disorder. Freud also claimed that the depressive had suffered "a tremendous decline in self-esteem, the impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale.... He had lost his self-esteem".
The Yogyakarta Principles, documents on international human rights law, address discriminatory attitudes towards LGBT communities that make their self-esteem low to be subjects of human rights violations including human trafficking. and the World Health Organization recommends in "Preventing Suicide" published in 2000 that strengthening student self-esteem is essential to protecting children and adolescents against mental distress and grief, enabling them to cope with difficult and stressful life situations. How this can be done, and whether it will be effectively unclear.
In addition to increased happiness, higher self-esteem is also known to correlate with better ability to cope with stress and higher resemblance that individuals take on the difficult task relative to those with low self-esteem.
Correction
From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, many Americans assume that students' self-esteem acts as an important factor in the value they earn at school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success.. Under this assumption, several American groups created programs aimed at improving students' self-esteem. Until the 1990s, little research was reviewed and controlled by others on this topic.
Research conducted by colleagues conducted since then did not validate the previous assumptions. Recent research has shown that inflating student self-esteem does not have a positive effect on value. Roy Baumeister has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can decrease value. Relationships involving self-esteem and academic results do not indicate that high self-esteem contributes to high academic outcomes. It simply means that high self-esteem can be achieved as a result of high academic performance because other variables of social interaction and life events affect this performance.
"Efforts by pro-price advocates to encourage self-esteem in students solely on the grounds of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if the feelings of well-being are not accompanied by good deeds only when the students engage in meaningful personal efforts to which they may be justifiably proud that belief self grows, and this growing self-belief which in turn triggers further achievement. "
High self-esteem has a high correlation with self-reported happiness; whether this is a causal relationship has not been established. The relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction is stronger in individualistic cultures.
Moreover, self-esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships, that people with high self-esteem will more easily forgive than people with low self-esteem.
High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking medication, or having early sex. One notable exception is that high self-esteem reduces the possibility of bulimia in women.
Neuroscience
In a 2014 study conducted by Robert S. Chavez and Todd F. Heatherton, it was found that self-esteem is associated with frontostriatal circuit connectivity. The frontostriatal path connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which is related to self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which is associated with feelings of motivation and respect. Stronger anatomical paths correlate with higher long-term self-esteem, while stronger functional connectivity correlates with higher short-term self-esteem.
Criticism and controversy
American psychologist Albert Ellis criticizes on many occasions the concept of self-worth as essentially defeating oneself and ultimately undermining. While acknowledging the human tendency and tendency to judge the ego as innate, he has criticized the philosophy of self-worth as unrealistic, illogical and self-destructive and social - often more dangerous than good. Questioning the basis and usefulness of the generalized power of ego, he claims that self-esteem is based on the premise of arbitrary definition, and too general, perfectionist and grandiose thinking. Recognizing that the assessment and assessment of behaviors and characteristics are functional and even necessary, he sees judgment and judges the totality and total of the human self as irrational and unethical. A healthier alternative to her self-esteem is her selfless self-acceptance and other unconditional acceptance. Rational Emotional Behavioral Therapy is psychotherapy based on this approach.
- "There seem to be only two obvious obvious benefits of high self-esteem.... First, it enhances initiative, perhaps because it gives self-confidence.People with high self-esteem are more willing to act on their behalf confidence, to defend what they believe, to approach others, to take risks in new ventures. (This unfortunately includes being more willing to do stupid or destructive things, even when others advise against them.) It can also cause people to ignore sensible suggestions because they are constantly wasting their time and money for futile purposes "
Incorrect attempt
For people with low self-esteem, any positive stimulus will temporarily increase self-esteem. Therefore, ownership, sex, success, or physical appearance will result in the development of self-esteem, but its development is only momentary.
Such efforts to raise one's self-esteem with positive stimulus yield a "boom or bust" pattern. "Praise and positive feedback" produced encouragement, but failed to follow the lack of such feedback. For someone who "self-esteem is contingent", success is "not extra sweet", but "failure is extra bitter".
As a nurse
Life satisfaction, happiness, healthy behavior behavior, perceived effectiveness, and academic success and adjustment have been associated with a high degree of self-esteem (Harter, 1987, Huebner, 1991; Lipschitz-Elhawi & Itzhaky, 2005; Rumberger 1995; Swenson & Prelow, 2005; Yarcheski & Mahon, 1989). However, a common mistake is to think that loving oneself should be equivalent to narcissism, as opposed to what for example Erik Erikson speaks as "post-narcissistic love of the ego." A person with a healthy self-esteem accepts and loves himself unconditionally, acknowledging his virtue and guilt, but, in spite of everything, is able to continue to love himself.
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