Sculpture is a branch of visual art that operates in three dimensions. This is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes initially used carvings (removal of materials) and modeling (addition of materials, such as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism, there has been almost complete material freedom and process. Various materials can be worked with removal such as engraving, assembled by welding or modeling, or molded or molded.
The statue in the stone survives much better than the artwork in a perishable material, and often represents most of the surviving works (other than pottery) of ancient cultures, although otherwise the tradition of wooden statues may have disappeared almost entirely. However, most ancient sculptures are brightly painted, and these have been lost.
Statues have been central to religious devotion in many cultures, and up until the last centuries, great statues, too expensive for private individuals to be created, are usually religious or political expressions. The cultures whose statues survive in numbers include ancient Mediterranean, Indian and Chinese cultures, as well as many in South America and Africa.
The tradition of Western sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing the great masterpiece in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, the Gothic statue symbolized the suffering and desire of the Christian faith. The revival of the classical model in the Renaissance produces famous statues such as Michelangelo David . The modernist sculpture moves away from traditional processes and emphasizes the depiction of the human body, with the creation of sculptures constructed, and the presentation of objects found as finished works of art.
Video Sculpture
Jenis
The fundamental difference is between a statue in a round statue, free standing, like a statue, not attached (except perhaps at the bottom) to another surface, and various types of relief, which at least partially attach to the background surface.. Reliefs are often grouped by projection level from wall to low or relief, high relief, and sometimes mid-medium relief. Sunk-relief is a technique limited to ancient Egypt. Relief is an ordinary sculpture medium for groups of great figures and narrative subjects, which is difficult to achieve in laps, and is a distinctive technique used both for architectural sculptures, attached to buildings, and for small-scale sculptures to decorate other objects, as in many pottery, metal and jewelry. The relief sculpture can also decorate steles, erect plates, usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.
Another fundamental difference is between substractive engraving techniques, which remove material from existing blocks or blocks, such as rocks or wood, and modeling techniques that shape or build the work of the material. Techniques such as casting, stamping and molding use intermediate matrices that contain designs to produce works; many of these allow the production of multiple copies.
The term "sculpture" is often used primarily to describe great works, sometimes called monumental sculptures, meaning either one or both large statues, or those attached to buildings. But the term correctly includes many types of small works in three dimensions using the same techniques, including coins and medals, hard rock carvings, designations for small sculptures in stone that can take detail work.
A very large or "colossal" statue has had a lasting appeal since antiquity; the biggest record at 128 m (420 ft) is the Chinese Temple Buddha 2002. Another form of portrait statue is a horse statue of a horse rider, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest form of a human-sized portrait statue is the "head", indicating it, or statue, a person's representation from the chest up. Small forms of sculpture include statues, usually statues that are no more than 18 inches (46 cm) tall, and for reliefs, plaques, medals or coins.
Modern and contemporary art has added a number of non-traditional sculptures, including sound statues, light sculptures, environmental art, environmental sculptures, street art sculptures, kinetic sculptures (involving physical motion aspects), soil art, and location-specific. art. Sculpture is an important form of public art. The collection of sculptures in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden.
Maps Sculpture
Purpose and subject
One of the most common goals of sculpture is in the form of association with religion. The cult figures are common in many cultures, although they are often not statues of colossal gods that characterize ancient Greek art, such as the Zeus Statue in Olympia. The picture of the real cult in the foremost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which no survivors, was rather small, even in the greatest temples. The same is often true in Hinduism, where very simple and ancient lingam forms are the most common. Buddhism brings statues of religious leaders to East Asia, where there seems to be no previous equivalent tradition, although other simple forms such as bi and
The small statue as a private belongs back to the earliest prehistoric art, and the use of a very large statue as a public art, especially to impress the audience with the powers of the ruler, back at least to the Great Sphinx about 4,500 years ago. In archeology and art history, appearance, and sometimes vanishing, large or monumental sculptures in cultures are regarded as very important, although tracing its appearance is often compounded by the presence of sculptures in wood and other perishable materials that have no record. residuals; totem poles are an example of a monumental sculpture tradition in wood that will not leave a trace for archeology. The ability to call resources to create monumental sculptures, transporting very heavy materials and arranging payments that are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is considered a sign of a relatively advanced culture in terms of social organization. The latest unexpected discovery of the ancient Chinese bronze age in Sanxingdui, some more than twice the size of a human, has disrupted many of the ideas held about early Chinese civilization, as fewer bronzes were previously known. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, seem to have no monumental statues at all, although they produce statues and highly sophisticated seals. Mississippian culture seems to have evolved towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous resources to monumental sculptures of a very large scale from very early stages.
The collection of sculptures, including the previous period, returns about 2,000 years in Greece, China and Mesoamerica, and many collections are available on a semi-public screen long before the modern museum was invented. From the 20th century, the relatively limited range of subjects found in large sculptures grew rapidly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of all kinds of subjects that are now common. Today many sculptures are made for intermittent displays in galleries and museums, and the ability to transport and store larger works is a factor in their construction. Small decorative sculptures, most often in ceramics, are as popular today (though strangely ignored by modern and contemporary art) as in Rococo, or in ancient Greece when the Tanagra statues were major industries, or in East Asia and Pre-Columbus art. Small sculptures for furniture and other objects can go back to ancient times, such as the Nimrud, the ivory of Begram, and the findings from Tutankhamun's tomb.
The portrait statue begins in Egypt, where the Narmer Palette shows the ruler of the 32nd century BC, and Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving Gudea statues, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 - 2124 BC. In ancient Greece and Rome, the establishment of a portrait statue in a public place is almost a sign of the highest honor, and the ambitions of the elite, which may also be represented by coins. In other cultures such as Egypt and Near Eastern public statues almost exclusively preserve the rulers, with other rich people simply portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are usually the only people portrayed in Pre-Columbian culture, beginning with the head of the Olmec columal about 3,000 years ago. The statue of East Asian portraits is entirely religious, with prominent priests celebrated with sculptures, especially founders of monasteries, but not rulers, or ancestors. The Mediterranean tradition was revived, originally only for grave and coin stupas, in the Middle Ages, but thrived in the Renaissance, which invented new forms such as private portrait medals.
Animals, with human figures, are the earliest subjects for sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimes realistic, but often imaginary; in Chinese animals and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for stone sculptures outside the tombs and temples. The plant kingdom is only important in decorative jewelry and relief, but it forms almost all the great statues of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and is very important in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such as palmette and wine rolls have passed east and west for over two millennia.
One of the sculptural forms found in many prehistoric cultures around the world is the ordinary version of specially developed tools, weapons or ships made with impractical precious materials, whether for some form of use or display of ceremonies or as offerings. Jade or other greenstone types are used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Europe, and in early Mesopotamia the form of large pottery was produced in stone. Bronze is used in Europe and China for large axes and blades, such as Oxborough Dirk.
Materials and techniques
The materials used in the sculpture vary, changing throughout history. Classical materials, with remarkable durability, are metals, especially bronze, stone and pottery, with less durable but cheaper wood, bones and horns. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade, and ivory are often used for fancy little works, and sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues. More common and less expensive materials are used for sculptures for wider consumption, including hardwoods (such as oak, boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for casting models, and receive cylindrical and engraved seal impressions), and cast metals such as tin and zinc (spelter). But a large number of other materials have been used as part of the sculpture, in ethnographic and ancient works such as modern works.
Sculptures are often painted, but generally lose their paint to time, or restoration. Many different painting techniques have been used in making sculptures, including tempera, oil paintings, gilding, house paint, aerosol, enamel and sandblasting.
Many sculptors are looking for new ways and materials to create works of art. One of the most famous Pablo Picasso statues includes bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists use spectacularly painted steel. Since the 1960s, acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy Goldsworthy makes his unbelievably short statues of almost all natural ingredients in nature. Some statues, such as ice sculptures, sand statues, and gas sculptures, were deliberately short-lived. Latest sculptors have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware and consumer packaging to focus their work. Sculptors sometimes use objects found, and Chinese clerical rocks have been valued for centuries.
Stone
Stone sculpture is an ancient activity in which rough natural stone pieces are formed by the removal of controlled stones. Due to its permanent nature, evidence can be found that even the earliest peoples were involved in some form of stone work, though not all regions of the world have so many excellent stones for carvings such as Egypt, Greece, India and much of Europe.. Petroglyphs (also called sculptures) are probably the earliest forms: drawings made by removing parts of the inner fixed stone surface, by incised, pecking, sculpting and justifying. Monumental sculptures include masterpieces, and architectural sculptures, attached to buildings. Hardstone carving is an engraving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate, onyx, crystal stone, sard or carnelian, and a general term for objects created in this way. Alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easily engraved for smaller jobs and is still relatively durable. The ornate gem is a small carved gem, including brilliant acting, originally used as a seal ring.
The copying of the original statue in stone, of great importance to ancient Greek sculptures, almost all of which are known from copies, has traditionally been accomplished by "pointing", along with a more free method. Pointing involves setting the grid of the string box on the wooden frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the position on the grid and the distance between the grid and the statue of a series of individual points, and then using this information to carve into the block from which the copy was made.
Metal
The bronze and associated copper alloys are the oldest and still the most popular metal for cast metal sculpture; Cast bronze statue is often called only "bronze". Common bronze alloys have unusual and desirable properties of expansion a little before they are set, thereby filling out the best detail of the mold. Their strength and lack of brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when numbers in action will be made, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (see marble statues for some examples). Gold is the most delicate and noble metal, and is very important in jewelry; with silver soft enough to work with hammers and other tools and molds; repousse and chase are techniques used in gold and silver.
Casting is a group of manufacturing processes in which the liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into the mold, containing the hollow cavities of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. Solid casting is then removed or solved to complete the process, although the final stage of "cold work" can follow on the finished mold. Casting can be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that are cold set after mixing components (such as epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used to create complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to be made with other methods. The oldest surviving casting is the Mesopotamian copper frog from 3200 BC. Special techniques include lost wax casting, casting plaster molding and sand casting.
Glass
Glass can be used for sculpture through various working techniques, although its use for masterpiece is the latest development. It can be carved, with great difficulty; The Roman Lycurgus Cup is all unique. Hot casting can be carried out by channeling molten glass into molds that have been made by pressing the shape onto sand, engraved graphite or detailed plaster/silica mold. Kiln casting glass involves heating the glass in the kiln until they are liquid and flowing into the mold waiting below it in the kiln. Glass can also be destroyed and/or heat carved by hand tools either as solid mass or as part of a blown object. Newer techniques involve chiseling and bonding plate glass with silicate polymers and UV light.
Pottery
Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well as clay being the medium in which many statues are cast on metal originally modeled for casting. Sculptors often build small preliminary works called maquettes of ephemeral material such as Paris plaster, wax, un-clarified clay, or plastisin. Many cultures have produced pottery which combines function as a ship with sculptures, and small statues are often as popular as modern Western culture. Stamps and prints were used by most ancient civilizations, from ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.
Wood Carvings
Wooden engraving has been widely practiced, but endures much less than other key ingredients, prone to decay, insect damage, and fire. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the cultural history of many cultures. Outdoor wood sculpture does not last long in most of the world, so we do not know how the totem pole tradition develops. Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in particular are wood, and most of the sculpture is Africa and that of Oceania and other regions.
Lightweight wood, ideal for masks and other sculptures intended to be carried, and can pick up very fine detail. It's also easier to work than rock. It has been very often painted after being carved, but the paint is less good than wood, and is often lost in pieces that are still alive. Painted wood is often technically described as "wood and polychrome". Usually a layer of gesso or plaster is applied to the wood, and then the paint is applied to it.
Social status of a sculptor
Across the globe, sculptors are usually merchants whose work is not signed; in some traditions, for example China, where the statue does not share the prestige of literati paintings, this has affected the status of the statue itself. Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors like Phidias became famous, they seemed to have the same social status as other craftsmen, and probably not much bigger financial rewards, though some signed their work. In medieval times artists like 12th-century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and were sought by various cities, mainly from Trecento and so on in Italy, with figures such as Arnolfo di Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son, Giovanni. Goldsmiths and jewelers, dealing with precious materials and often doubling as bankers, belonging to a strong union and having considerable status, often hold civil posts. Many sculptors also practice in other arts; Andrea del Verrocchio is also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelangelo, and Jacopo Sansovino are architects. Some sculptors maintain large workshops. Even in the Renaissance the physical nature of the work was perceived by Leonardo da Vinci and others as undermining the statue's status in art, although Michelangelo's reputation may have put this old idea to rest.
From High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Leone Leoni and Giambologna can become rich, and glorified, and enter the circle of princes, after a period of intense debate over the status of relics and sculpture. Many of the decorative statues in the building remain a trade, but the sculptor who produces individual pieces is recognized at the level with the painter. From the 18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle-class students, although it was slower to do so than painting. The female sculptor is older than the female painter, and less prominent until the 20th century.
Anti-sculpting movement
Anichonism remained limited to Judaism, which did not receive a figurative image until the 19th century, before extending into Early Christianity, which initially received large statues. In Christianity and Buddhism, the statue becomes very significant. Eastern Orthodoxy Christians have never accepted a monumental statue, and Islam consistently rejects almost all figurative statues, except for very small numbers in reliefs and some animal statues that fulfill useful functions, such as the famous lion that supports the fountain at the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantism also disagree with religious statues. There are many iconoklasma statues of religious motifs, from Early Christianity, Beeldenstorm Protestant Reformation to the destruction of Buddha Buddha by the Taliban in 2001.
History of the statue
Prehistoric period
The earliest example of the undisputed sculpture of the Aurignacian culture, located in Europe and southwest Asia and active in the beginning of Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the earliest known cave art, people from this culture developed finely crafted stone tools, making pendants, bracelets, ivory beads, and bone flutes, as well as three-dimensional statues.
The 30 cm LÃÆ'¶wenmensch found in the Hohlenstein Stadel area in Germany is an anthropomorphic lion figure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has dated about 35-40.000 BP, making it, along with Venus Hohle Fels, the oldest known figurative art example ever known.
Much of the surviving prehistoric art is a small portable sculpture, with a small group of Venus female sculptures like Venus Willendorf (24-26.000 Ã, BP) found in central Europe. The Swim Reindeer some 13,000 years ago was one of the finest of a number of Magdalene carvings on bone or animal horns in Upper Paleolithic art, although they were outnumbered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classified as sculptures. The two largest prehistoric statues can be found in the caves of Tuc d'Audobert in France, where about 12-17,000 years ago an expert sculptor used a spatula-like stone tool and fingers to model a pair of large bison in clay against limestone. stone.
With the beginning of the mesolithic figurative statue in Europe greatly diminished, and remained a less common element in art than the relief of practical objects to the Roman period, though some works such as the Gundestrup crater of the European Iron Age and the Brundan chariot Trundholm Age.
Ancient Near East
The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works such as Vas Warka and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness is a remarkable small lime figure from Elam around 3000-2800 BC, part human and some lioness. Some time later there were a number of prominent priests and worshipers, mostly in alabaster and up to foot-high, who attended images of the cult of the temple of the gods, but very few of these survived. The statues of the Sumerians and Akkadians generally have large eyes that stare, and long bearded men. Many of the masterpieces have also been found in the Royal Cemetery in Ur (about 2650 BC), including two numbers from Ram in a Bamboo Bull and a bull in one of the Lyres of Ur.
From many later periods before the reign of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BC Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylindrical seals, relatively small numbers in rotation, and relief of various sizes, including cheap pottery plaques formed for homes, some do not. The Burney Relief is a very large and relatively large (20 x 15 inch, 50 x 37 cm) terracotta plaque from a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and an owl and a lion auxiliary. It dates from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be printed. Stela stone, sacrificial offerings, or who may commemorate the victory and feast, are also found from the temple, which unlike the less formal inscriptions will explain it; The separate Stupa Vultures are early examples of the written type, and the great and dense Obadiahk Black Assyrian of Shalmaneser III.
The conquest of all Mesopotamia and many surrounding areas by the Assyrians created a larger and more prosperous country than the previously known territory, and the magnificent art of castles and public places, is undoubtedly partly meant to match the splendor of art from the royal Egyptian adjacent. Unlike previous countries, the Assyrian people can easily use carved stone from northern Iraq, and do so in large numbers. The Assyrians developed a very large schema style from the subtle details of a very fine story in stone to the castle, with a battle or hunting scene; The British Museum has a remarkable collection, including the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal and the Lakesh reliefs showing the campaign. They produce a very small statue around it, except for the colossal guardian figure of the man-headed lamassu, carved with high relief on two sides of the rectangular block, with the head effectively on the round (and also five feet, so both views look complete) ). Even before dominating the area, they continued the tradition of cylinder seals with designs that are often very energetic and subtle.
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian monumental sculptures are the world's most famous small works, but subtle and subtle ones exist in far greater numbers. Egyptians use a special technique to remove sunk, which is perfect for very bright sunlight. The main numbers in the relief follow the same number convention as in the painting, with a separate foot (where it is not sitting) and the head shown from the side, but the body from the front, and a set of standard proportions that compose the image, using 18 "boxing "to go from the ground to the hairline on the forehead. It appears as early as the Narmer Palette of the First Dynasty. However, there as elsewhere, this convention is not used for small figures shown to be involved in some activities, such as captives and corpses. Other conventions make male statues darker than women's ones. Very conventional portrait sculptures emerged since the beginning of Dynasty II, before 2,780 BC, and with the exception of the Amarna Ahkenaten period art, and several other periods such as the XII Dynasty, the ideal ruling features, like other Egyptian artistic conventions. , changed slightly until after the Greek conquest.
Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as gods, but other gods were less common in large statues, except when they represented the pharaoh as other gods; but other gods are often featured in paintings and reliefs. A row of four famous colossal statues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each shows Rameses II, a typical scheme, although here it is very large. Little figures of the god, or the personification of their animals, are very common, and are found in popular materials such as pottery. Larger sculptures survive from Egyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (2680-2565 BC) no later than the idea of ​​the Ka statue erected firmly. It was put into a tomb as a resting place for the soul's part, and so we have a large number of less-than-conventional statues from wealthy administrators and their wives, many in wood like Egypt is one of the few places in the world where climate allows wood to last for more than thousands of years. The so-called reserve head, head without plain hair, is very naturalistic. The early graves also contained small models of slaves, animals, buildings and objects such as boats needed for the deceased to continue their lifestyle in the afterlife, and later Ushabti's characters.
Europe
Ancient Greek
The first distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture was developed during the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (the 3rd millennium BC), where marble statues, usually female and small, are represented in an elegantly simplified geometric style. The most typical is a standing pose with arms crossed in front, but other figures are displayed in different poses, including the elaborate figure of a harpist sitting in a chair.
The Minoan and Mycenaean cultures further developed the statue further, under the influence of Syria and elsewhere, but in the later Archaic period from about 650 BC developed by kouros. These statues are large statues of naked young men, found in temples and tombs, with korean dresses dressed in women, with elaborately elaborated hair; both have an "old-fashioned smile". They seem to have served a number of functions, perhaps occasionally representing deities and sometimes people buried in graves, such as Kroisos Kouros. They are obviously influenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles, but the Greek artists are much better prepared to experiment in style.
During the sixth century, the Greek sculpture grew rapidly, became more naturalistic, and with more active and varied characters in the narrative scene, though still in an idealized convention. The sculptured swords were added to the temple, including the Parthenon in Athens, where the remnants of the 520s using the numbers in the round were fortunately used as a filler for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BC, and recovered from the 1880s in a condition without a new bandage. Other significant architectural remains of sculpture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and the Aphaea Temple in Aegina (much now in Munich). Most Greek sculptures initially include at least some colors; The Nys Carlsberg Glyptotek Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark, has undertaken extensive research and original color recreation.
Classic
There are fewer original remains than the first phase of the Classical period, often called Severe style; Free-standing sculptures are now mostly made of bronze, which always has value as a scrap. The Severe style lasts from about 500 reliefs, and soon after 480 in the statue, up to about 450. The relatively rigid style of relaxed figures, and asymmetrical backsides and sloping views become common, and deliberately sought. This is combined with a better understanding of the anatomy and the harmonious structure of the sculptured figures, and the quest for naturalistic representation as a goal, never seen before. Excavations at the Temple of Zeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest group of remnants, from about 460, which many are in the Louvre.
The period of "Classic High" only lasts for several decades from about 450 to 400, but has a tremendous influence on art, and retains a special prestige, albeit a very limited number of original remains. The most famous works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally (since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most famous ancient Greek sculptor, Phidias, active from around 465-425, who in his own time was more famous for his enormous colossal Zeus Statue. in Olympia (c) 432), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, its Athena Athhenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon, and
Classical Style High continues to develop the realism and sophistication of the human figure, and enhances the depiction of the curtains (clothing), using it to add to the impact of the active pose. Facial expressions are usually very controlled, even in combat scenes. The composition of groups of characters in reliefs and symposia combines complexity and harmony in ways that have a permanent influence on Western art. Relief can be very high, as in the following Parthenon illustration, where most of the foot of the soldier is completely detached from the background, such as the missing piece; this high made statue relief is more easily damaged. The Classical Style of the End develops a free-standing statue of a woman, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and develops an increasingly complex and subtle pose of interest when viewed from a number of angles, as well as a more expressive face; both tendencies must be taken further in the Hellenistic period.
Hellenis
The Hellenistic Period was conventionally dated from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, and ended with the final conquest of Greek land by Rome in 146 BC or with the last defeat of the last remaining state remaining for Alexander's empire after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marked end of the Roman Republic. This is much longer than the previous period, and includes at least two major phases: the style of "Pergamene" experimentation, excitement and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in the 2nd century BC, a classicization returns to simpler simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizations, dating is usually very uncertain, especially when only copies are later known, as is usually the case. The early Pergamene style was not primarily associated with Pergamon, from which he took his name, but the very wealthy kings of the state were the first to collect and also copy the Classical statues, and also commissioned many new jobs, including the famous Pergamon Altar. a statue that is now mostly in Berlin and which exemplifies a new style, as well as the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (one of the Seven Wonders), the famous LaocoÃÆ'¶n and its sons at the Vatican Museum, late for example, and original The bronze of The Dying Gaul (illustrated above), which we know is part of the group actually assigned to Pergamon in about 228 BC, from which Ludovisi Gaul is also a copy. The group called Farnese Bull, possibly native to the 2nd century marble, is still larger and more complex,
Hellenistic sculpture greatly extends the reach of represented subjects, in part as a result of greater general prosperity, and the emergence of very rich classes that have large mansions adorned with sculptures, though we know that some examples of subjects that seem most suited to homes, such as children children with animals, actually placed in temples or other public places. For the much more popular home decorating market, there are Tanagra statues, and statues from other centers where small pottery sculptures are produced on an industrial scale, some are religious, but others show elegantly dressed animals and women. Sculptors become more technically skilled in representing facial expressions that convey a variety of individual emotions and portraits, as well as representing different ages and races. The relief of the Mausoleum is rather unusual in that respect; most of the freestanding work, and group compositions with several characters to be seen in rounds, such as Laocoon and Pergamon groups celebrating victories over Gallic became popular, which rarely happened before. The Barberini Faun, indicating a sleeping satyr, perhaps after drinking, is an example of the moral relaxation of the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive statues of subjects that are less than heroic.
After the conquest of Alexander the dominant culture of Hellenistic in most courts of Near East, and some of Central Asia, and increasingly adopted by European elite, especially in Italy, where the Greek colony initially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and artists, spread widely, and was very influential in the widespread Roman Republic and then met with Buddhism in the easternmost part of the Hellenistic region. Alexander's immense sarcophagus was discovered in Sidon in modern Lebanon, probably made there at the beginning of the period by expatriate Greek artists for the governor of Persia Helenian. Wealth at that time led to a greatly increased production of the small form of fancy sculptures, including engraved gems and brilliant acting, jewelry, and gold and silver.
Europe after the Greek
Roman Statue
Early Roman art was influenced by Greek art and neighboring Etruscans, they themselves were strongly influenced by their Greek trading partners. Etruscan features close to the life-size tomb stamps in the terracotta, usually located above the sarcophagus lid supported on one elbow in a restaurant pose in that period. As the developing Roman Republic began to conquer the Greek territory, initially in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for Faren's far eastern, official and noble statue became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which certain Roman elements were difficult to decompose, because so many Greek statues survive only in copies of the Roman period. In the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working in Rome" were Greeks, often enslaved in conquests like Corinth (146 BC), and sculptors continued mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names were rarely recorded. A large number of Greek statues were imported into Rome, either as booty or as a result of extortion or trade, and temples were often decorated with Greek works reused.
The original Italian style can be seen in the monument of the tomb, which often features portrait statues, prosperous middle-class Romans, and portraits are the main force of the Roman statue. There are no remnants of the tradition of ancestral masks used in large family funeral processions and instead displayed at home, but many surviving statues must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from large family tombs such as Tomb of the Scipios or mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head is reputedly Lucius Junius Brutus very diverse dates, but is taken as a very rare defensive style of Italic under the Republic, in a preferred medium of bronze. Likewise, hard and strong heads are seen on the coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial period coins and statues sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilica of the provincial city are the main visual forms of imperial propaganda; even Londinium has an almost colossal Nero statue, though much smaller than the 30-meter-high Colossus of Nero in Rome, is now gone.
The Romans in general did not seek to compete with the free-standing Greek works of heroic exploitation of history or mythology, but from the beginning produced historical works in relief, culminating in a large Roman triumphal column with continuous narratives rotating around them , among them commemorating Trajan (CE 113) and Marcus Aurelius (with 193) surviving in Rome, where Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace", 13 BC) represents the most classical and fine official Greco-Roman style. Among other major examples are reliefs that were reused earlier in the Arch of Constantine and the base of Antoninus Pius Column (161), the Campana relief is a cheaper version of pottery than a marble relief and a sense of relief derived from the imperial period extending to the sarcophagus. All the fancy little sculptures continue to be broken, and the quality can be very high, like in the Silver Warren Cup, Lycurgus Cup cup, and great brilliant acts like Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and "Cameo Besar France". For the wider segment of the population, decorative reliefs of shaped pottery vessels and small statues are produced in large quantities and often of high quality.
After moving through the late 2nd-century "baroque" phase, in the 3rd century, Roman art was largely abandoned, or simply unable to produce, a statue in the classical tradition, a change in which the cause is still much talked about. Even the most important imperial monuments now show large-eyed figures with hard frontal styles, in simple compositions that emphasize strength at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which incorporates sections in new styles with bundles in earlier Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and Four Tetrarchs (c. ) of the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger discovers in both monuments equally "the proportions of grease, angular movement, ordering parts through symmetry and repetition and rendering of features and folds of drapery through incisions rather than modeling... The characteristic of the force wherever it appears consists of firm, heavy and rigidity - in short, denial is almost entirely from the classical tradition ".
The revolution in this style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and most of the people, leading to the end of a large religious statue, with large statues now being used only for the emperors. However, wealthy Christians continue to provide aid to the sarcophagus, as in Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small statues, especially in ivory, continued by Christians, built in consular diptych style.
The Beginning of the Middle Ages and Byzantines
Early Christians opposed the monumental religious statue, although it continued the Roman tradition in portraits and reliefs of sarcophagi, as well as smaller objects such as consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materials, are also the main sculpture tradition (as far as is known) from the savage civilization of the Migration period, as seen on objects found in the 6th century burial treasure at Sutton Hoo, and their jewelry. Scythian art and production of Christian style and animal hybrid Insular art. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition, the Carolingian art revives ivory carvings, often in panels for grinding of large manuscript treasures, as well as crozier and other small appliances.
Byzantine art, though it produces incredible ivory relief and decorative architectural carvings, never returns to a monumental statue, or even many small statues around it. However, in the West during the Carolingian and Ottonian periods there were beginnings of monumental sculpture production, in courts and large churches. This gradually spread; at the end of the 10th and 11th centuries there were records of some original-sized statues in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably from precious metals around wooden frames, such as the Golden Madonna of Essen. There is no surviving Anglo-Saxon example, and the remains of a large non-architectural statue from before 1,000 are very rare. The best one is the Gero Cross, 965-70, which is the cross, which is clearly the most common type of statue; Charlemagne has placed one in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800. It continues to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, the Pictish stones in Scotland and perhaps the high cross reliefs of the United Kingdom, are the northern sculpture traditions that bridge the Christianization period.
Romanesque
From about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artistic production throughout Europe, led by general economic growth in production and trade, and a new style of Roman art was the first medieval style used throughout Western Europe. New cathedrals and pilgrim churches are increasingly adorned with architectural stone reliefs, and a new focus for the developed sculptures, such as the tympanum above the church doors in the 12th century, and capital populated with characters and often narrative scenes. The incredible monastic churches with statues are included in the French VÃÆ'Â © zelay and Moissac and in Spanish Silos.
Romantic art is characterized by a very strong style both in sculpture and painting. The capital of the column has never been more interesting than in this period, when they are often engraved with scenes complete with some numbers. The large wooden cross is a German innovation right at the beginning of the period, like the free standing statues of the crowned Madonna, but the high relief is above all the sculpture modes of the period. The composition usually has a small depth, and must be flexible to squeeze itself into the shape of the capital, and the church's typanums; The tension between the tightly closed frame, from which the composition sometimes passes, is a recurrent theme in Roman art. The numbers still often vary in size in relation to their almost non-existent portrait of importance.
The objects of valuable materials such as ivory and metal had a very high status at that time, far more than monumental statues - we know the names of more makers than painters, illuminators or stone masons. Metal work, including decoration in enamel, becomes very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, the most famous being the Three Kings Temple in Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun. Gloucester bronze chandelier and brass font 1108-17 now in LiÃÆ'¨ge is a remarkable example, very different in style, metal casting, traces very complicated and energetic, drawing on the manuscript painting, while the font shows the style of Mosan in the most classical and magnificent. Bronze doors, victory columns and other fixtures at Hildesheim Cathedral, Gniezno Doors, and the door of the Basilica di San Zeno in Verona are the other substantial remains. The aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century, and often takes on a fantastic zoomorphic shape; The most surviving examples are brass. Many impressive wax impression survives on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins generally do not have a great aesthetic interest.
The Cloisters Cross is an enormous ivory cross, with intricate carvings including many other prophets and figures, linked to one of the few artists whose names are known, Master Hugo, who also shines on the manuscript. Like many parts originally colored. The Lewis chessmen are well preserved small ivory examples, in which many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques, chest crosses and similar objects.
Gothic
The Gothic period is basically defined by Gothic architecture, and does not entirely correspond to the development of style in the sculpture, either the beginning or the end. The facades of the large churches, especially around the door, continue to have a large typanum, but also a row of sculpted figures that spread around them. The statues in the Western Portal in Chartres Cathedral (c 1145) show elongated but elaborate elongation, but those in the southern portal of the transept, from 1215 to 1220, exhibit a more naturalistic style and increase the detachment of the walls in back, and some awareness of the classical tradition. This trend was continued in the western portal at Rheims Cathedral a few years later, where the numbers are almost circular, as usual like Gothic scattered throughout Europe.
In Italy Nicola Pisano (1258-78) and his son Giovanni developed a style often called Proto-Renaissance, with a clear influence of Roman sarcophagus and sophisticated and overcrowded composition, including sympathetic bare handling, on relief panels above their pulpits. Cathedral of Siena (1265-68), Fontana Maggiore in Perugia, and the Giovanni pulpit in Pistoia in 1301. Another classic revival was seen in the work of Gothic International Claus Sluter and his followers in Burgundy and Flanders circa 1400. The late Gothic Statue continues in the North , with a mode for enormous woodcut altarpieces with an increasingly proficient engraving and a large number of restless expressive figures; most surviving examples exist in Germany, after much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschneider, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into the 16th century, gradually absorbing the influence of the Italian Renaissance.
Large grave statues in stone or alabaster became popular for the rich and magnificent multi-level tombs, with Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large that they had to be moved outside the church. In the fifteenth century there was an industry that exports the relief of the altar albaster of Nottingham in a panel group in much of Europe to economic parishes who could not afford to buy stones. Small carvings, especially for the lay market and often women, became major industries in Paris and some other centers. The types of ivory include small meditative polyptychs, single figures, particularly Virgin, mirror-cases, combs, and tricky coffins with scenes from Romances, used as an engagement gift. Rich, wealthy people collect gems that are carved and enamelled, both secular and religious, such as Thorn Reliquary Sacred Duc de Berry, until they run out of money, when they are melted again for cash.
Renaissance
The exact Renaissance statue is often taken to start with the famous competition for the Florence Baptistry's door in 1403, from which experimental models put forward by the winners, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo Brunelleschi survive. The Ghiberti doors are still there, but no doubt hindered by their second spouse for another entrance, called the "Gate of Heaven", which took him from 1425 to 1452, and is a charming and confident classical composition with varying depth of relief. wide background. The years of waiting have seen Ghiberti Donatello's early assistant develop with seminal statues including his Davids in marble (1408-09) and bronze (1440s), and the Equestrian of Gattamelata statue, and its reliefs. Prominent figure in the next period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his busting statue Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice; His pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed a horse statue in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded in creating a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model destroyed by a French archer in 1499, and his ambitious sculpture plan others never finished.
This period is characterized by a major increase of patronage sculptures by the state to the public art and by the rich to their homes; especially in Italy, the general sculpture remains an important element in the appearance of the historic city center. Church statues mostly move inside just as public monuments outside become common. The portrait statue, usually in the form of a statue, became popular in Italy around 1450, with Neapolitan Francesco Laurana specializing in young women in meditative poses, while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depict men who face problems, but also children small. The portrait medallions created by Pisanello are also often portrayed by women; relief plaquettes are another new small form of sculpture inside cast metal.
Michelangelo is an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces include his David , PietÃÆ' , Moses , and pieces for Tomb of Pope Julius II and the Medici Chapel can not be ignored by the next sculptor. The iconic David (1504) has a pose of contrapposto , borrowed from a classical statue. This differs from the previous representation of the subject in that David was depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after a gigantic defeat. Instead of being shown as a winner, as did Donatello and Verocchio, David looks tense and ready to fight.
Mannerist
As in the paintings, the earliest statue of Italian Mannerism was largely an attempt to discover the original style that would achieve the achievement of the High Renaissance, which basically means the Michelangelo statue, and many struggles to accomplish this are played in commissions to fill other places in Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo David . Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from his own master, but it was a bit more popular than it is now, and is evil compared to Benvenuto Cellini for "a sack of melons", though it's a long-term effect in introducing relief panels on pedestal statue. Like his other works and other Mannerist, he removed much more original blocks than Michelangelo would have done. Medini's bronze Perseus with Medusa's head is of course a masterpiece, designed with eight points of view, other Manneris characteristics, but polite compared to David David of Michelangelo and Donatello. Originally a goldsmith, his famous gold and Salt Cellar enamel (1543) was his first statue, and showed his best talent. As these examples illustrate, it extends the range of secular subjects to great works outside portraits, with specially favored mythological figures; previously this was mostly found in small works.
Small bronze figures for collector cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes, are a popular Renaissance form where Giambologna, originally Flemish but based in Florence, excels in the later part of this century, also created a human-sized statue, in which two people join the collection at Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers made elegant elegant examples of Serpentine Figures, often from two interrelated figures, which draw from all angles.
Baroque and Rococo
In Baroque statues, groups of figures are considered important new, and there is a dynamic movement and human form of energy - they revolve around an empty central vortex, or reach out into the surrounding space. Baroque sculptures often have some ideal point of view, and reflect the general continuation of the Renaissance moving away from the reliefs to the sculptures made in rounds, and designed to be placed in the middle of a large space - an elaborate fountain such as Bernini Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome , 1651), or those in the Gardens of Versailles are a Baroque master. Baroque style is perfect for sculpture, with Gian Lorenzo Bernini a figure who dominates from an age in works such as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (1647-1652). Many Baroque statues add extra sculptural elements, for example, hidden lighting, or fountains, or fused sculptures and architecture to create a transformative experience for viewers. Artists see themselves as in the classical tradition, but admire Hellenistic Hellenes and then Roman statues, rather than the more "Classic" periods as seen today.
The Protestant Reformation almost stopped religious statues in most of Northern Europe, and although secular sculptures, especially for portrait statues and monument tombs, continued, the Dutch Golden Age did not have significant sculptural components outside of gold. Partly in direct reaction, the statue is equally prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages. Statues of rulers and nobles are becoming increasingly popular. In the 18th century many statues followed by the Baroque line - the Trevi Fountain was only completed in 1762. Rococo style is more suitable for smaller works, and arguably finds the ideal sculpture form in early European porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in wood or plaster as it does in French domestic interiors and Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.
Neo-Classical
The Neoclassical style that arrived at the end of the 18th century gave great emphasis on sculpture. Jean-Antoine Houdon exemplifies the translucent portrait statue that style can produce, and Antonio Canova naked on the idealistic aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical Period was one of the great periods of public sculpture, although the "classical" prototype was more likely to be a Roman copy of Hellenistic sculpture. In the statue, the best known representatives are Antonio Canova of Italy, the Englishman John Flaxman and Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen. The European neoclassical way also takes place in the United States, where its peak occurs later and is exemplified in the statues of Hiram Powers.
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Source of the article : Wikipedia
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