a political party is a group of people united to contest elections and hold power in government. Well-organized political parties that agree on some proposed policies and programs, with a view to promoting the collective good or advancing the interests of their supporters.
Although there are some international similarities in the way political parties are acknowledged, and in the way they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent a very different ideology of their ideology at the time the party is founded. Many countries, such as Germany and India, have several significant political parties, and some have one-party systems, such as China and Cuba. The United States in practice is a two-party system, but with many small parties also participating and a high degree of autonomy for individual candidates. The two most important parties are Democrats and Republicans.
Video Political party
Dimensi historis
Faksi politik
The first political factions, which unified the basic principles, if flowing, emerged from the Crisis Exclusion and the Great Revolution in England at the end of the 17th century. The Whigs supported the Protestant constitutional monarchy against the absolute rule; Tory, from the Royalist faction (or "Cavalier") of the British Civil War, was a supporter of the conservative monarchy of a powerful monarchy as a counterweight to the Republican tendency of Whig, which was the dominant political faction for much of the first half. the 18th century; Whig endorsed the succession of Hanover 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the ousted Stuart Roman Catholic dynasty, and was able to clear Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite in 1715. The leader of the Whig was Robert Walpole, who retained government control over the period 1721-1742; his protégé is Henry Pelham (1743-1754).
As the centuries passed, factions gradually began to adopt a more coherent political tendency because the interests of their power base began to diverge. The initial base of Whig party support from large aristocratic families was expanded to include the interests of emerging industries and wealthy merchants. As well as fighting for a constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the rule of the king, the Whig firmly opposed the Catholic king as a threat to freedom, and believed in expanding tolerance towards nonconformist Protestants, or dissidents. The major influence on the Whig is the liberal political ideas of John Locke, and the concept of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney.
Although the Tories were not in office for half a century, for most of this period (initially under Sir William Wyndham's leadership) the Tories retained party cohesion, with the occasional hope of regaining the office, especially at George II's accession (1727). ) and the fall of Sir Robert Walpole's ministry in 1742. They acted as a unified, though nonexistent, opposition to Whig's corruption and scandal. Sometimes they cooperate with the "Whig Opposition", Whig who opposes the Whig government; However, the ideological divide between Tory and Whig Oppos prevented them from merging as one party. They finally regained power with George III's accession in 1760 under Lord Bute.
Appears
When they lost power, Whig's long-standing leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite" and "Chathamite" respectively ruling factions, and all called themselves "Whigs". From this chaos, the first special parties emerged. The first such party was Whites Rockingham under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke arranges a philosophy that describes the basic framework of political parties as "a group of people united to be promoted by their collective efforts in the national interest, on a certain principle in which they all agree." Contrary to the instability of previous factions, which are often linked with certain leaders and can be destroyed if removed from power, the party is centered around a set of core principles and remains powerless as a united opposition against the government.
A coalition including Whites Rockingham, led by the Earl of Shelburne, took power in 1782, only to collapse after the death of Rockingham. The new government, led by radical politician Charles James Fox in a coalition with Lord North, was soon demoted and replaced by William Pitt the Younger in 1783. Now the original two-party system began to emerge, with Pitt leading the new Tories against the "Whig" party formed again led by Fox.
At the time of this split the Whig party was increasingly influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, the founder of classical liberalism. As Wilson and Reill (2004) note, "Adam Smith's theory blends well with the Whig Party's liberal political stance and its middle-class constituency."
The modern Conservative Party was created from 'Pittite' Tories in the early 19th century. In the late 1820s a dispute over political reform disbanded the group. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed in the midst of a terrible election result. After this disaster, Robert Peel began to form a coalition of new troops. Peel released the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 establishing the basic principles of Conservatism - the need in special cases of reform for survival, but opposition to unnecessary change, which could lead to "eternal perpetual vortex". Meanwhile, Whig, along with the followers of free trade Tory followers Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a growing urban middle class party, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone..
In the United States
Although the drafters of the US Constitution of 1787 did not anticipate that the American political discourse would be partisan, political controversy in the early 1790s over the level of federal power saw the emergence of two proto-political parties: the Federalist Party and the Democratic Republican Party, championed by Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, respectively. However, the consensus reached on these issues put an end to party politics in 1816 for almost a decade, a period commonly known as the Feeling of Good Era.
The outbreak of the Democratic Party-Republic after the controversial 1824 presidential election led to the re-emergence of political parties. The two major parties will dominate the political landscape for the next quarter of a century: the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, founded by Henry Clay of the National Republican Party and from other Anti-Jackson groups. When the Whig Party collapsed in the mid-1850s, its position as a major US political party was filled by Republicans.
Spread
The second half of the 19th century saw the adoption of political party models across Europe. In Germany, France, Austria and elsewhere, the 1848 Revolution sparked a wave of liberal sentiment and the formation of representative bodies and political parties. The end of this century sees the formation of major socialist parties in Europe, some adapting to the teachings of Karl Marx, others adapting social democracy through the use of reformist and gradualist methods.
At the same time, political parties achieve their modern form, with members being disciplined through the use of party whips and the application of efficient control structures. The Home Rule League Party, which campaigned for the House Rules for Ireland in the British Parliament was basically changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed the name of his party to the Irish Parliament Party and created a well-organized grassroots structure, introducing membership to replace informal "ad hoc" groups. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the election of party candidates professionally committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a 'party pledge' of companies that required MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a tight party whip and formal party structure was unique at the time. The efficient structure and control of his party contrasts with the loose rules and flexible informality found in major UK parties; they immediately modeled themselves on the Parnellite model.
Maps Political party
Structure
A political party is usually led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains day-to-day work and party meeting notes), party treasurer (responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who form a strategy to recruit and retain party members, and also lead party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of party executives, leading organizations that set policies for all parties at the national level. Its structure is much more decentralized in the United States due to the separation of powers, federalism and the diversity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized because counties and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The leader of the national party in the US will be president, if the party holds the post, or a prominent congressman in the opposition (although the governor of the big country may want the role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee which is the leading spokesman, organizer and fundraiser, but without the status of the elected office.
In parliamentary democracies, on a regular basis, party conferences are held to elect party officials, although instantaneous leadership elections may be called if enough members vote for them. Party conferences are also held to affirm party values ​​for members in the coming year. American parties also meet regularly and, again, more subject to elected political leaders.
Depending on the demographic deployment of party membership, party members form local or regional party committees to assist candidates to run for local or regional offices in government. These local party branches reflect the position of officials at the national level.
It is also a habit for members of political parties to form wings for current or prospective party members, most of which fall into the following two categories:
- based on identity: including the wings of youth, women's wings, ethnic minority wings, LGBT wings, etc.
- position based: including wings for candidates, mayors, governors, professionals, students, etc. The formation of these wings may have been a routine but their existence is more an indication of differences of opinion, inter-party rivalry, influence of interest groups, or attempts to use influence for your state or territory.
This is useful for party outreach, training and employment. Many young politicians are looking for these roles and jobs as a stepping stone toward their political career in the legislative or executive office.
The internal structure of political parties must be democratic in some countries. In German Art. 21 Abs. 1 Satz 3 GG establishes a democratic command in the party.
Parliamentary party
When a party is represented by a member of the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of full party representatives; Depending on the minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow leaders to form frontbench teams from fellow senior members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of the government's policy aspect. When a party becomes the largest party is not part of the Government, the party parliamentary party forms the Official Opposition, with members of the frontbal team of the Official Opposition often forming the Official Opposition Opposition cabinet. When a party reaches a sufficient seat in elections to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the cabinet minister of government. They are all elected members.
Rule
The freedom to form, declare membership in, or campaigns for candidates of political parties is considered a measure of state adherence to liberal democracy as a political value. Party rules may proceed from crackdown or repression of all opposition parties, norms for authoritarian governments, to the oppression of certain parties holding or promoting ideals that are contrary to the general ideology of the state petahana (or to have law- law has no legal force).
In addition, in the case of right-wing parties, left-far and regionalism in the national parliament of many European Union, mainline political parties can form informal cordon sanitaire that implements non-cooperation policies against those "Outsiders" present in the legislature which are seen as 'anti-systems' or otherwise unacceptable to the government. Cordons sanitaire, however, has been increasingly abandoned during the last two decades in multi-party democracy as pressure to build a broad coalition to win elections - along with increased desire from outsiders themselves to participate. in government - has led to many such parties entering the electoral coalition and government.
Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, modern democracy has introduced rules for the flow of funds through party coffers, such as the Canadian Election Law of 1976, PPRA in the UK or FECA in the US. Such political finance regimes set various regulations for the transparency of collection of funds and expenditures, restrict or prohibit certain types of activities and provide public subsidies for party activities, including campaigning.
Partition style
Partisan styles vary according to their respective jurisdictions, depending on how many parties exist, and how much influence each side has.
Nonpartisan system
In a non-partisan system, there is no official political party, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In non-partisan elections, each candidate qualifies for a position based on his or her own ability. In nonpartisan legislatures, there is no formal party partisanship in the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress are nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his farewell speech. In the United States, Nebraska's unicameral legislature is nonpartisan but elected and often votes on the informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislature of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut is nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many municipalities and districts in the United States and Canada are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan election and governance mode are common outside state institutions. Unless there is a legal prohibition on political parties, factions in non-partisan systems often evolve into political parties.
Uni-party System
In a one-party system, a political party is legally permitted to hold effective powers. Although small parties are sometimes permitted, they are legally required to accept dominant party leadership. The party may not always be identical with the government, although sometimes the position within the party is in fact more important than the position within the government. North Korea and China are examples; others can be found in Fascist countries, such as Nazi Germany between 1934 and 1945. The one-party system is thus often equated with dictatorship and tyranny.
In the dominant party system, opposition parties are allowed, and there may even be established democratic traditions, but other parties are widely perceived to have no real opportunity to gain power. Sometimes, the political, social and economic situation, and public opinion are the reasons for the failure of others. Sometimes, usually in countries with less established democratic tradition, it is possible that the dominant party will remain in power using patronage and sometimes with voting fraud. In the latter case, the definition between the dominant system and the one-party system becomes somewhat vague. Examples of dominant party systems include the People's Action Party in Singapore, the African National Congress in South Africa, the Cambodian People's Party in Cambodia, the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, and the National Liberation Front in Algeria. The one-party dominant system also existed in Mexico with the Institutional Revolutionary Party until the 1990s, in the southern United States with the Democratic Party from the late 19th century to the 1970s, in Indonesia with Golkar from the early 1970s, until 1998.
Bi-party system
The two-party system is countries such as Honduras, Jamaica, Malta, Ghana and the United States where there are two dominant political parties in such a way that the success of elections under the banner of other parties is almost impossible. A right-wing coalition party and a left-wing coalition party are the most common ideological solutions in such a system but in party countries, the two parties traditionally capture all those who are ideologically broad and inclusive.
The United States has basically been a two-party system, since conservative parties (like the Republicans) and liberal parties (like the Democratic Party) have usually been the status quo in American politics. The first parties were called Federalists and Republicans, followed by a brief period of Republican dominance before the split occurred between the National Republican Party and the Democratic Republic. The first became the Whig Party and the last became the Democratic Party. The Whig survived for only two decades before they divided up the spread of slavery, those who oppose being a new Republican, as did anti-slavery members of the Democratic Party. Third parties (such as the Libertarian Party) often receive little support and are rarely the winners in the election. Nevertheless, there are some examples of third parties sucking votes from major parties that are expected to win (such as Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 election and George Wallace in the 1968 election). As third-party movements have learned, the Electoral College requirements of a majority that are nationally distributed make it difficult for third parties to succeed. As such, such parties rarely win many electoral votes, although their popular support in a country may provide clues to one party or another. Wallace has weak support outside the South. In general, parties with broad base of support throughout the region or between economic groups and other interest groups, have a great chance to win the required plurality in most of the single election districts, the U.S. pick-winning election. The enormous land area and the large population in this country are a formidable challenge for political parties with a narrow appeal.
The British political system, while technically a multi-party system, functions generally as a two-party system (sometimes called a "two-and-a-half" system); since the 1920s, the two largest political parties are the Conservative Party and the Labor Party. Before the Labor Party arose in British politics, the Liberal Party was another major political party along with the Conservative Party. Although coalition and minority governments are parliamentary political features, the first electoral system used for elections tends to maintain the dominance of both parties, although each in the last century rely on a third party. to provide the majority working in Parliament. (The plurality selection system usually leads to a two-party system, a relationship described by Maurice Duverger and known as Duverger's Law.) There are also many other parties holding or having occupied a number of seats in Parliament.
Multi-party system
Multi-party systems are systems where more than two parties are represented and elected for public office.
Australia, Canada, Nepal, Pakistan, India, Ireland, Britain and Norway are examples of countries with two powerful parties and additional small parties that have also gained representation. Smaller or "third" parties may hold the balance of power in the parliamentary system, and can thus be invited to form part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties, or be able to provide supply and confidence agreements to the government. ; or otherwise act independently of the dominant parties.
More generally, in cases where there are three or more parties, no one party may gain power alone, and the parties must cooperate with each other to form a coalition government. This is almost always the case in Germany at the national and state levels, and in most electoral districts on the communal level. Furthermore, since the formation of the Republic of Iceland there has never been a government led by a coalition, usually involving the Independence Party or the Progressive Party. A similar situation exists in the Republic of Ireland, where no party has its own power since 1989. Since then, many coalition governments have been formed. This coalition has been led exclusively by Fianna FÃÆ'¡il or Fine Gael.
Political change is often easier with coalition governments than the dominant one-party or two-party system. If factions within the two-party system are in fundamental disagreement about policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which seems to be the case now in the US with the separation of powers between Democrats and Republicans. The coalition government is still struggling, sometimes over the years, to change policy and often fails completely, after World War II France and Italy became a prime example. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can become rapid and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of unintentional circumstances as did the Republicans at the time of Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama could have had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011. By 2017, President Donald Trump is currently enjoying good Republican control from home and senate.
Funding
Political parties are funded by contributions from
- party members and other individuals,
- organizations that share their political ideas (eg union affiliate fees) or who can benefit from their activities (eg corporate donations) or
- government or public funding.
Political parties, still called factions by some, especially those in government apparatus, are vigorously lobbied by organizations, businesses and special interest groups such as unions. Money and gifts-in form to a party, or its main members, can be offered as an incentive. Such donations are a traditional source of funding for all the center-right cadre parties. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, these parties were opposed by newly established left-wing labor parties. They started a new party type, a mass membership party, and a new source of political fundraising, membership dues.
From the second half of the 20th century on a party that continues to rely on donations or membership subscriptions are experiencing mounting problems. Along with the increased monitoring of donations, there has been a long-term decline in party membership in most western democracies which in itself places more pressure on funding. For example, in the United Kingdom and Australia's membership of two major parties in 2006 less than 1/8 of what happened in 1950, despite a significant population increase during that period.
In some parties, such as post-communist parties in France and Italy or Sinn FÃÆ'Ã… © in parties and Socialist Party, elected representatives (ie petahana) only take the average industry wage from their salaries as representatives, while the rest to in the party coffers. Although these examples may be rare today, "rent-seeking" continues to be a feature of many political parties around the world.
In the United Kingdom, it has been alleged that the national title has been awarded to contributors to party funds, the philanthropists become members of the House of Lords and thus are in a position to participate in the drafting of the law. Famous, Lloyd George was found to have sold slaves. To prevent such corruption in the future, Parliament endorsed the 1925 Constitution (Prevention of Abuses) Act into law. Thus direct sales of peers and similar rewards are criminal acts. However, some philanthropists allegedly have tried to avoid this by slipping their contributions as loans, resulting in a 'Cash for Peerages' scandal.
Such activities and also assumed "peddling effect" have led to demands that the scale of donations should be limited. As the cost of elections increases, the demands made against party funds increase. In Britain some politicians advocate that parties should be funded by the state; a promising proposition to generate an interesting debate in the country that was the first to set campaign spending (in 1883).
In many other democracies, such subsidies for party activities (in general or for campaign purposes only) were introduced several decades ago. Public funding for parties and/or candidates (during election time and beyond) has several permutations and is increasingly common. Germany, Sweden, Israel, Canada, Australia, Austria and Spain are examples. Recently, among others, France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands and Poland have followed suit.
There are two broad categories of public funding, direct, requiring monetary transfers to a party, and indirectly, covering broadcasting time in the state media, use of services or mail supplies. According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, out of a sample of more than 180 countries, 25% of countries do not provide direct or indirect public financing, 58% provide direct public funding and 60% of countries provide indirect public financing. Some countries provide direct and indirect public financing to political parties. Funding may be the same for all parties or depending on the results of the previous election or the number of candidates participating in the election. Often the parties rely on a mixture of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the electoral management body.
In the new democratic financing can also be provided by foreign aid. International donors provide financing to political parties in developing countries as a means to promote democracy and good governance. Support can be purely financial or otherwise. Often these are provided as capacity building activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaign skills. Developing relationships between ideologically related parties is another common feature of international support for a party. Sometimes this can be regarded as directly supporting the political objectives of a political party, such as the US government's support to the Georgian party behind the Rose Revolution. Other donors work on a more neutral basis, in which many donors provide grants in countries that are accessible to all parties for the purposes set by the recipients. There have been calls by leading development thinkers, such as the Overseas Development Institute, to increase support for political parties as part of capacity building to address donor demand driven by interests to improve governance.
Colors and emblems
In general, throughout the world, political parties associate themselves with colors, especially for identification, especially for voter recognition during elections. Conservative parties generally use blue or black. Pink sometimes signifies moderate socialists. Yellow is often used for libertarianism or classical liberalism. Red often signifies social democratic, socialist or communist parties.
Green is the color for the green party, the Islamist parties, the Nordic agrarian parties and the Irish republic parties. Orange is sometimes a color of nationalism, as in Holland, in Israel with Orange Camp or with Ulster Loyalists in Northern Ireland; it is also the color of such reforms in Ukraine. In the past, Purple was considered the color of royalty (like white), but today it is sometimes used for feminist parties. White is also associated with nationalism. The "Purple Party" is also used as an academic hypothetical of undefined parties, as the Sentris party in the United States (because purple is created from mixing the colors of red and blue main parties) and as idealistic "peace and love". "the party - in a similar vein to the Green Party, is likely Black is commonly associated with fascist parties, back to the blackshirts of Benito Mussolini, but also with Anarchism.Similarly, chocolate is sometimes associated with Nazism, returning to uniformed storm troops tan Nazi soldiers.
The association of colors is useful for mnemonics when illiterate voters are significant. The other case in which they are used is when it is unwanted to make strict relations with the parties, especially when coalitions and alliances are formed between political parties and other organizations, for example: Red Tory, "Purple" (Red-Blue) alliances, Red green alliance, Blue-green alliance, traffic light coalition, Pan-green coalition, and Pan-blue coalition.
Political color schemes in the United States deviate from international norms. Since 2000, red has been linked to the right-wing Republicans and the blue with the left-wing Democratic Party. However, unlike other countries' political color schemes, the parties do not choose those colors; they are used in news coverage of the 2000 election results and the subsequent legal battle and are caught in popular use. Before the 2000 general election, the media usually alternated which colors represented which party in every cycle of presidential elections. The color scheme happened to get excessive attention that year, so the cycle was stopped not to cause the following election confusion.
The symbol of a socialist party is often a red rose held with a fist. Communist parties often use hammers to represent workers, sickles to represent farmers, or hammers and sickles to refer both at the same time.
The symbolism of Nazism, the swastika or "hakenkreuz", has been adopted as an almost universal symbol for almost all organized white supremacist groups, though dating from more ancient times.
Symbols can be very important when the overall voters are illiterate. In Kenya's constitution referendum, 2005, constitutional supporters use bananas as their symbol, while "no" uses oranges.
International organization
During the 19th and 20th centuries, many national political parties organized themselves into international organizations along the same line of policy. Important examples are the Universal Party, the International Workers' Association (also called the First International), the International Socialist (also called the Second International), the Communist International (also called the Third International), and the Fourth International, as a working-class or Liberal International yellow), Hizb ut-Tahrir, Christian Democratic International and International Democrat Union (blue). Held in Italy in 1945, the Communist Party of the International, since 1974 headquartered in Florence has sections in six countries. Green parties around the world recently established Global Greens. The Universal Party, the International Socialist, the International Liberal and the International Democratic Union are all based in London. Some administrations (eg Hong Kong) prohibit formal links between local and foreign political organizations, effectively banning international political parties.
Type
French political scientist Maurice Duverger drew the distinction between the cadre parties and the mass parties. The cadre parties are political elites who are concerned about elections and limit the influence of outsiders, who are only asked to assist in election campaigns. The mass parties try to recruit new members who are a source of party income and are often expected to spread party ideology and assist in elections. Socialist parties are an example of a mass party, while the British Conservative Party and the German Christian Democrats are an example of a hybrid party. In the United States, where the two major parties are cadre parties, preliminary introductions and other reforms have transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete for the influence and nomination of candidates.
Klaus von Beyme categorizes European parties into nine families, depicting most parties. He was able to arrange seven of them from left to right: communist, socialist, green, liberal, Christian democratic, conservative and libertarian. The position of the other two types, agrarian and regional/ethnic varies.
See also
- Elite party
- Index of political articles
- List of political parties
- List of ruling political parties by country
- Particracy (political regime dominated by one or more parties)
- Party class
- Party line (politics)
- UCLA Party Politics School
References
External links
- US. The Party Platform from 1840 to 2004 in the American Presidency Project: UC Santa Barbara
- Political resources on the internet
- Paradox Party Politics by Elmer G. Wiens
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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