Leadership is a research and practical skills area that includes the ability of individuals or organizations to "lead" or guide individuals, teams, or all other organizations. Specialist literature argues against different points of view, comparing Eastern and Western approaches with leadership, as well as the (in the West) approach of the United States versus Europe. The US academic environment defines leadership as "a process of social influence in which one can ask for help and support of others in the accomplishment of common tasks". Leadership viewed from a European and non-academic perspective includes the view of a leader who can be moved not only by communitarian goals but also by a search for personal power.
Leadership studies have produced a theory that involves the nature, situational interaction, function, behavior, strength, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence, among others.
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Historical view
The Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Determining the characteristics of ten leader types is explained by examples from history and mythology.
Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on "blue blood" or one's genes. The monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and probably supports his claim to aristocratic claims by simply applying the divine sanction (see divine right of kings). Conversely, the more democratic tend theorists have pointed to the examples of meritocratic leaders, such as Napoleon's marshals who took advantage of a career open to talent.
In a series of autocratic/paternalistic thinking, traditionalists recalled the role of the Roman family leadership pater . Feminist thought, on the other hand, can object to such models as patriarchal and place them emotionally aligned, responsive, and consensual in giving empathy guidance, sometimes attributed to matriarchy.
Compared to Roman tradition, Confucianism's view of "right life" is closely related to the ideals of the intellectual leader (male) and his benevolent government, underpinned by a devoted devotional tradition.
Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trust, humanity, courage, and discipline... Dependence on intelligence alone produces rebellion. Humanitarian exercises only produce weaknesses. Fixation of trust leads to ignorance. Dependence on courage produces violence. Excessive discipline and persistence in command result in cruelty. When a person has all five common virtues, each according to his function, then one can be a leader. - Sun Tzu
Machiavelli's The Prince , written in the early 16th century, provides guidance to the rulers ("prince" or "tyranny" in Machiavelli terminology) to gain and retain power.
In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership questionable. (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the nineteenth century.) A response to the rejection of this litism comes with Leninism, which demands ÃÆ' Â © The lite cadre group disciplined to act as the vanguard of the socialist revolution, bringing the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Another historical view of leadership has shown a striking difference between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have been repeated and have had its critics for several centuries. Christian thinking about leadership often emphasizes the management of the resources given by the divine - human and material - and their placement in accordance with the divine plan. Compare the servant leadership.
For a more general view of leadership in politics, compare the concept of statesman.
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Theory
Early western history
The search for characteristics or characteristics of leaders has been going on for centuries. Philosophical writing from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives has been exploring the question "What qualities distinguish someone as a leader?" Underpinning this quest is the initial recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in characteristics possessed by certain individuals. The idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as "the theory of the nature of leadership".
A number of works in the nineteenth century - when the traditional authority of kings, masters and bishops began to wane - explored the theory of nature at length: notice especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton, whose work has driven decades of research. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identifies the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rise to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examines the quality of leadership in a stronger family of people. After pointing out that the number of leading relatives dropped as the focus moved from first to second grade brothers, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders are born, not developed. Both of these famous works provide a great early support for the idea that leadership is rooted in the characteristics of a leader.
Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) believes that public-spirited leadership can be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral strength of character and instinct to lead," and educating them in a context (such as Oxford University college environment) that develops such characteristics. An international network of such leaders can help promote international understanding and help "make war impossible". This leadership vision underlies the creation of the Rhodes Scholarship, which has helped shape the notion of leadership since their creation in 1903.
Rise of alternative theory
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews of this study (eg Bird 1940, Stogdill, 1948, Mann, 1959) encouraged researchers to take a far different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits are common in some studies, the overall evidence suggests that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Furthermore, leadership is no longer characterized as a feature of an immortal individual, as situational approach (see alternative leadership theory below) suggests that the individual can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifts away from the qualities of the leader to the investigation of effective leader behavior. This approach dominates many theories and research of leadership over the next few decades
Reemergency theory properties
New methods and measurements are developed after these influential reviews that will eventually rebuild the theory of traits as a viable approach to leadership studies. For example, an increase in the use of researchers from a round robin research design methodology allows researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders in a variety of situations and tasks. In addition, during the 1980s statistical progress allowed researchers to conduct a meta-analysis, in which they could analyze quantitatively and summarize the findings of various studies. This emergence allows the theorist's properties to create a comprehensive picture of prior leadership research rather than relying on qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers reveal the following:
- Individuals can and do appear as leaders in various situations and tasks.
- A significant relationship exists between the emergence of leadership and individual characteristics such as:
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- Intelligence
- Adjustments
- Extraversy
- Conscientiousness
- Openness to experience
- General efficacy
While the theory of leadership traits is certainly popular again, its reappearance is not accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.
Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) notes that the theory of traits remains:
- Focus on a small set of individual attributes like "The Big Five" personality traits, to the abandonment of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills.
- Failed to consider patterns or integration of some attributes.
- Do not distinguish between leadership attributes that are generally not soft over time and those formed by, and tied to, situational influences.
- Do not consider how stable attribute attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership.
Pattern of attribute patterns
Taking into account the critique of the trait theories outlined above, some researchers have begun to adopt different perspectives of individual leader differences - the approach of leader attribute patterns. In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on the theorists' argument that the influence of individual characteristics on the best results is understood by considering people as an integrated totality rather than the sum of individual variables. In other words, the leader attribute pattern approach holds that an integrated constellation or combination of individual differences can account for substantial variations in both the leader's emergence and the effectiveness of outside leaders described by a single attribute, or with a combination of additives from some attributes.
Theories of behavior and style
In response to initial criticism of the nature approach, theorists began to examine leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluate the behavior of successful leaders, determine behavioral taxonomy, and identify broad leadership styles. David McClelland, for example, argues that leadership has a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even important.
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 worked under the influence of leadership and performance styles. The researchers evaluated the performance of a group of eleven boys under various types of work climate. In each case, the leader exercises his influence on the types of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study investigating the observable behavior described by effective leaders. They will then identify whether this particular behavior reflects the effectiveness of leadership. They were able to narrow down their findings into two identifiable differences. The first dimension is identified as the "Initiating Structure", which describes how a leader communicates clearly and accurately with their followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. This is considered "task-oriented" behavior The second dimension is "Consideration", which indicates a leader's ability to build interpersonal relationships with their followers, to form a form of mutual trust. This is considered a "social-oriented" behavior.
The Michigan State Study, conducted in the 1950s, conducted further investigations and findings that were positively correlated with leadership behaviors and effectiveness. Despite their similar findings as the Ohio State study, they contribute to additional behaviors identified in the leader. This is participatory behavior; allow followers to participate in group decision making and encourage subordinate input. Another term used to describe this is "Leader Leadership", which requires leaders to resist the kind of leadership that is more in control and allows more personal interaction between themselves and their subordinates.
The managerial grid model is also based on behavioral theory. This model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggested five different styles of leadership, based on leaders' concerns toward people and their concern for the achievement of goals.
Positive reinforcement
B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developing the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. Here is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in business settings. Assume praise is a positive amplifier for certain employees. These employees do not appear to work on time every day. This employee manager decides to praise employees for appearing on time every day employees actually appear to work on time. As a result, employees come to work on time more often because employees like to be praised. In this example, praise (stimulus) is a positive booster for these employees because employees arrive at work on time (behavior) more often after being praised for coming on time.
The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by leaders to motivate and achieve desired behavior from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to improve productivity. Empirical studies covering the last 20 years show that strengthening theory has a 17 percent increase in performance. In addition, many strengthening techniques such as the use of inexpensive praise, delivering higher performance for lower costs.
Situational theory and contingencies
Situational theory also emerges as a reaction to the theory of the nature of leadership. Social scientists argue that history is more than the result of the intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) says that time produces people and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations require different characteristics; according to this theory group, there is no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader depends largely on the characteristics of the situation in which he is functioning."
Some theorists begin to synthesize nature and situational approaches. Based on Lewin et al.'s research, academics began to normalize the descriptive models of the leadership climate, defining the three leadership styles and identifying which situations each worked better. Authoritarian leadership styles, for example, were approved in a period of crisis but failed to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; democratic leadership styles are more adequate in situations requiring consensus formation; Finally, laissez-faire leadership styles are valued for the degree of freedom it provides, but because leaders are not "responsible", they can be regarded as failures in prolonged or thorny organizational problems. Thus, theorists define the style of leadership as dependent on the situation, which is sometimes classified as a contingency theory. The four theories of contingency leadership appear to be more prominent in recent years: Fiedler's contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, path-goal theory, and situational theory of Hersey-Blanchard.
Fiedler's contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler calls situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership styles and situational favorability (then called situational control). The theory defines two types of leaders: those who tend to accomplish tasks by developing rapport with the group (relationship-oriented), and those with the primary concern perform the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relationship, a highly structured task, and a high leader position, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler finds that task-oriented leaders are more effective in highly profitable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations of medium importance.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973) and later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed a taxonomy to describe a leadership situation, used in normative decision models in which leadership styles are linked to situational variables, defining which approach is more appropriate for the situation Which one. This approach is new because it supports the idea that the same manager can rely on different group decision-making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model is then referred to as situational contingency theory.
The road-goal leadership theory was developed by Robert House (1971) and is based on Victor Vroom's theory of hope. According to House, the essence of this theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinate environments" and capabilities in ways that compensate for the deficiencies and instrumentalities for subordinate satisfaction and performance of individual units and work. "This theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement oriented directive , participatory , and support , which depend on environmental factors and characteristics In contrast to Fiedler's contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt one of the four depending on what the situation demands.The path-goal model can be classified either as a contingency theory, because it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory, because theory emphasizes the mutual behavior between leaders and followers.
The Situational Leadership® Model proposed by Hersey shows four leadership styles and four levels of follower development. For effectiveness, this model states that the leadership style must be appropriate to the appropriate level of development of followers. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but the characteristics of followers as well.
Functional theory
Theory of functional leadership (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes & Posner 1995) is a very useful theory to address certain leader behaviors that are expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's primary task is to see that whatever is necessary to meet the needs of the group will be preserved; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theories are most often applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been applied effectively to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing the literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight , and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions performed by a leader when promoting organizational effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and training subordinates, motivating others, and actively intervening in group work.
Various leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In the early work of identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (1953) observes that subordinates consider the behavior of their superiors in terms of two broad categories called consideration and initiating structure. Considerations include behaviors involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior will include showing concern for subordinates or acting in a way that supports others. Starting a structure involves a leader's actions that are specifically focused on achieving the task. This may include role clarification, setting performance standards, and requesting subordinates to be responsible for those standards.
Integrated psychology theory
Integrated Psychological leadership theory is an attempt to integrate the power of older theories (ie nature, behavior/style, situational and functional) while overcoming their limitations, especially by introducing new elements - the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitudes toward people others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders who want to implement an authentic leadership philosophy of service and leadership.
Integrated psychology theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011). Scouller argues that older theories offer only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively. He points out, for example, that:
- The nature of the theory, which tends to reinforce the idea that the born leader is not made, may help us choose leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.
- The ideal style (eg Blake & amp; Mouton team style) will not match all circumstances.
- Most situational/contingency and functional theory assumes that leaders can change their behavior to meet different circumstances or expand their range of behavior at will, when in practice many find it difficult to do so because of a deep-rooted belief, fear, or habit. Thus, he argues, leaders need to work on their inner psychology.
- No old theory has successfully responded to the challenge of developing a "leadership presence"; certain "things" to leaders who command attention, inspire people, win their trust, and make followers want to work with them.
Scouller proposes a Three Levels of Leadership model, which is then categorized as the "Integrated Psychology" theory at Businessballs education site. In essence, the model aims to summarize what leaders must do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders.
Three levels in the model are Public, Private and Private leadership:
- The first two - public and private leadership - are "outsiders" or behavioral levels. This is the behavior that discusses what Scouller calls "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) group goals are shared, motivated; (2) actions, progress, and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation. Public leadership focuses on 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. Personal leadership includes the 14 behaviors necessary to influence individuals one after the other.
- The third - personal leadership - is the "inner" level and concerns one's growth toward greater attendance, knowledge, and leadership skills. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Knowledge and technical skills (2) Developing right attitude toward others - which is the basis of serving leadership (3) Psychological self-mastery - the foundation for authentic leadership. li>
Scouller argues that self-mastery is the key to growing a person's leadership presence, building a trusting relationship with followers and dissolving boundary beliefs and habits, enabling behavioral flexibility when circumstances change while remaining connected to one's core values ​​(ie, authentic). To support the development of leaders, he introduces new models of the human soul and outlines the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation.
Transactional and transformational theory
Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of ​​two different types of leadership, transactional involving workplace awareness and transformational exchange based on employee care, intellectual stimulation, and providing group vision.
Transactional leaders (Burns, 1978) are given the power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for team performance. This gives the manager the opportunity to lead the group and the group agrees to follow its leader to achieve the intended purpose in exchange for something else. Power is given to leaders to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity does not reach the desired level, and rewards effectiveness when the expected outcomes are achieved.
Lead-member exchange theory
This LMX theory discusses a particular aspect of the leadership process is the leader-member exchange theory (LMX), which evolved from a previous theory called vertical numerical relations (VDL) model. Both models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to a transactional approach, this interaction is seen as a fair exchange in which leaders provide certain benefits such as significant counseling, suggestions, support, and/or rewards and followers respond by giving respect, cooperation, commitment to tasks to leaders and performance nice. However, the LMX recognizes that individual leaders and followers will vary in the kind of growing exchange between them. LMX theorizes that the kind of exchange between a particular leader and follower can lead to the creation of in groups and outer groups . Members in the group are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while members outside the group have low quality exchanges with the leader.
Members in group
Members in the group are considered by the leader as more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibilities than other followers. Leaders begin to rely on these individuals to help with challenging tasks. If followers respond well, leaders reward them with extra coaching, rewarding work assignments, and development experience. If followers show commitment and high effort followed by additional rewards, the two sides develop mutual trust, influence, and support each other. Research shows members in the group usually receive higher performance evaluations from leaders, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than members outside the group. Members in the group also tend to build stronger ties with their leaders by sharing the same background and social interests.
Outside members of the group
Outside members of the group often receive less time and more exchanges than their group counterparts. With members outside the group, leaders expect nothing more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to job descriptions in return for fair wages and standard benefits. Leaders spend less time with members outside the group, they have fewer developmental experiences, and leaders tend to emphasize their official authority to gain compliance with leader requests. Research shows that out-of-group members are less satisfied with their work and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from leaders, see their leaders are less fair, and more likely to complain or leave the organization.
Emotions
Leadership can be regarded as a process that is full of emotion, with emotions associated with the process of social influence. In an organization, the mood of the leader has some effect on the group. These effects can be explained in three levels:
- The mood of each member of the group. Group members with leaders in positive moods experience a more positive mood than group members with leaders in negative moods. Leaders send their moods to other group members through the mechanisms of emotional contagion. Mood contagion can be one of the psychological mechanisms in which charismatic leaders influence followers.
- Affective tone of the group. The group affective tone represents a consistent or homogeneous affective reaction within a group. The group affective tone is a mood aggregate of each group member and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in positive moods have more positive affective tones than groups with leaders in negative moods.
- Group process such as coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. The public expression of how mood influences how group members think and act. When people experience and express their mood, they send signals to others. Leaders mark their goals, intentions, and attitudes through the expression of their moods. For example, positive mood expressions by leaders indicate that leaders see progress toward goals as being good. Group members respond to these signals cognitively and behavior in a way that is reflected in the group process.
In research on client service, it was found that positive mood expression by leaders improved group performance, although in other sectors there were other findings.
Beyond the mood of the leader, his behavior is the source of positive and negative emotions of employees in the workplace. Leaders create situations and events that lead to emotional responses. Certain leader behaviors shown during interactions with their employees are the source of these affective events. Leaders establish affective events in the workplace. Example - giving feedback, assigning tasks, distributing resources. Because employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional state, it is important to consider the employee's emotional response to the organizational leader. Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions within yourself and others, contribute to effective leadership within the organization.
Neo-emergent Theory
The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Program) sees the leadership created through the emergence of information by leaders or other stakeholders, not through the actual actions of the leader itself. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories forms the basis of leadership perception by the majority. It is well known that the naval hero Lord Nelson often writes his own version of the battle in which he is involved, so that when he arrives home in England he will receive a true hero's welcome. In modern societies, press, blogs and other sources report their own views of leaders, which may be based on reality, but may also be based on political orders, payments, or interests attached to authors, the media, or leaders.. Therefore, one can argue that the perceptions of all leaders are created and in fact do not reflect the quality of their true leadership at all.
Occurrence leadership
Many personality traits are found to be associated with the emergence of leadership. This list includes, but is not limited to following (organized list in alphabetical order): assertiveness, authenticity, personality factor Big Five, birth order, character strength, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring and social motivation. The emergence of leadership is the idea that people born with certain characteristics become leaders, and those who do not have these characteristics do not become leaders. People like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all share the traits that the average person does not. These include people who choose to participate in leadership roles, compared with those who do not. Research shows that up to 30% of leaders appear to have a genetic basis. There is no current study that suggests that there is a "leadership gene"; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Both anecdotal, and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between certain traits and leadership behaviors. Using a large sample of international researchers found that there are three factors that motivate leaders; affective identity (lead pleasure), non-calculative (lead gain), and soci-normative (sense of duty).
Assertiveness
The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are low in firmness or very high in assertiveness tend not to be identified as leaders.
Authenticity
Individuals who are more aware of the quality of their personality, including their values ​​and beliefs, and less biased when processing information relating to themselves, are more likely to be accepted as leaders. See Authentic Leadership.
Five great personality factors
Those emerging as leaders tend to be more (order in the strength of relationships with leadership appearances): extroverted, meticulous, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although this trend is stronger in laboratory research on non-leader groups. Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play a significant role in the emergence of leadership
Birth order
Those born first in their families and only children are hypothesized to be more encouraged to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept the role of followers in the group, and then reborn and creative
Strength of character
Those looking for leadership positions in military organizations have increased scores on a number of strength indicators of character, including honesty, hope, courage, industry, and teamwork.
Domination
Individuals with dominant personalities - they portray themselves high in the desire to control their environment and influence others, and tend to express their opinions in powerful ways - are more likely to act as leaders in small group situations.
Emotional intelligence
Individuals with high emotional intelligence have improved the ability to understand and connect with people. They have the skills to communicate and describe emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively. Such people communicate their ideas in a stronger way, better able to read the politics of the situation, less likely to lose their emotional control, tend to be less angry or critical, and consequently more likely to emerge as leaders.
Gender identity
The masculine individual is more likely to emerge as a leader than a feminine individual.
Intelligence
Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit higher judgments, higher verbal skills (both written and spoken), faster learning and knowledge acquisition, and are more likely to emerge as leaders. Correlations between IQ and leadership emergence were found between 0.25 and 0.30. However, groups generally prefer leaders who do not exceed average members' intelligence skills with wide margins, because they fear that high intelligence can be translated into differences in communication, trust, interests and values.
Narcissism
Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as those facing threats or where status is determined by intense competition among rivals in groups, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, egotistical, hostile, and very confident..
Self-efficacy for leadership
The belief in one's ability to lead is associated with an increased desire to accept a leadership role and success in that role.
Self-monitoring
High self-monitoring is more likely to emerge as a group leader than a low self-monitor, as they are more concerned with upgrading and more likely to adjust their actions to suit the demands of the situation.
Social motivation
Success-oriented and affiliated-oriented individuals, judged by projective measures, are more active in group problem-solving settings and are more likely to be selected for leadership positions in such groups.
Leadership style
Leadership style is a leader style in giving direction, implement plan, and motivate people. This is the result of the leader's philosophy, personality, and experience. The rhetorical specialists have also developed a model for understanding leadership (Robert Hariman, Political Style , Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'Hyperpolitique Technology Policy De La Domination ).
Different situations require different styles of leadership. In an emergency when there is little time to gather on the deal and where the designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, the style of autocratic leadership may be most effective; however, in teams that are highly motivated and aligned with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic style or Laissez-faire may be more effective. The style adopted must be the most effective to achieve group goals while balancing the interests of individual members. The area in which leadership styles have gained strong attention is military science, which has recently expressed a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive the leader. The factors of physical presence are military cushioning, physical fitness, self-confidence, and endurance. The intellectual capacity of leaders helps to conceptualize solutions and gain knowledge to do the job. The conceptual capabilities of a leader apply agility, assessment, innovation, interpersonal tactics, and domain knowledge. The domain knowledge for leaders includes tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.
Under the style of autocratic leadership, all decision-making power centers on leaders, as do dictators.
Autocratic leaders do not entertain suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. Autocratic management has been successful because it provides a strong motivation to managers. This allows quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and makes every decision for himself until he/she feels the need to be shared with other group members.
Participatory or democratic
The democratic leadership style consists of leaders who share the ability to make decisions with group members by promoting the interests of group members and by practicing social equality. This is also called co-leadership.
Laissez-faire or Free-rein
In Laissez-faire leadership or free leadership, decision-making is passed on to the sub-ordinate. Sub-ordinates are granted full rights and powers to make decisions to set goals and solve problems or obstacles.
Task-oriented leadership is a style in which leaders are focused on the tasks that need to be done to achieve a particular production objective. Task-oriented leaders are generally more concerned with generating a step-by-step solution to a given problem or goal, strictly ensuring that these deadlines are met, outcomes and achieving target results.
Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style in which leaders focus more on relationships among groups and generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members. Relations-oriented leaders emphasize group communication, demonstrate trust and confidence in group members, and show respect for the work done.
Task-oriented leaders are usually less concerned with the idea of ​​serving group members, and more concerned with getting specific solutions to meet production goals. For this reason, they can usually ensure that deadlines are met, but the welfare of their group members may be disrupted. Relations-oriented leaders focus on team development and relationships within it. The positive thing to have this kind of environment is that team members are more motivated and supportive. However, emphasis on relationships as opposed to completing a job can make productivity suffer.
Differences in leadership are affected by gender
Another factor that craves leadership style is whether the person is male or female. When men and women join groups, they tend to adopt different styles of leadership. Men generally consider the agent leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, decision-focused, independent and goal-oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they take a leadership position; they try to help others, warm in relation to others, understand, and remember the feelings of others. Generally, when women are asked to portray themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They advise, offer guarantees, and manage conflict in an effort to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women are more positively connected with group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and responding wisely to others' comments. Men, on the other hand, describe themselves as influential, powerful, and adept at the task that needs to be done. They tend to put more focus on starting structures in groups, setting standards and goals, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and ultimately, emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in work do. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be task-oriented and relations-oriented. However, it is important to note that this gender difference is merely a tendency, and does not appear in men and women in all groups and situations.
Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the true influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is redundant and romanticized as a result of attribution bias towards leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Although this statement, however, is largely acknowledged and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the idea that leaders contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance, it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behaviors that are expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identifies specific types of performance dimensions; leadership is one dimension he identifies. There is no consistent and comprehensive definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many different conceptualizations are often incorporated under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader progress, and emerging leaders (Kaiser et al., 2008). For example, leadership performance can be used to refer to the career success of individual leaders, group or organizational performance, or even leader appearance. Each of these measures can be considered as conceptually different. While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion must depend on the applied focus or research.
A poisoned leader is someone who has responsibility for a group of people or organizations, and who abuse the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in worse condition than when he joined.
Traits
Most theories in the 20th century state that great leaders are born, not made. Current research shows that leadership is much more complex and can not be summarized into some of the key characteristics of an individual. Years of observation and research have shown that one trait or set of such traits does not make a great leader. What the scholars can accept is that the characteristics of an individual's leadership do not change from situation to situation; Such traits include intelligence, firmness, or physical attractiveness. However, any key trait can be applied to different situations, depending on circumstances. The following summarizes the key leadership features found in the study by Jon P. Howell, a business professor at New Mexico State University and author of the Snapshots of Great Leadership.
Determination and encouragement include such qualities as initiative, energy, firmness, persistence and sometimes domination. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, working long hours, ambitious, and often very competitive with others. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal skills, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits can formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under pressure or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and make mature plans for the future. Howell provides examples of Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln as encompassing the characteristics of determination and encouragement as well as having cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their ever-changing environment.
Confidence includes the properties of high self-esteem, firmness, emotional stability, and self-belief. Confident individuals do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions; they also have the ability to project this confidence to others, build their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in individuals who are honest, trustworthy, principled, consistent, reliable, loyal, and deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values ​​with their followers, as this is primarily an ethical issue. It is often said that these leaders keep their promises and are honest and open with their followers. Sociability describes individuals who are friendly, extroverted, thoughtful, flexible, and competent interpersonal. Such traits allow leaders to be well received by the public, using diplomatic steps to solve problems, as well as holding the ability to adapt their social personality to the situation at hand. According to Howell, Mother Teresa is a remarkable example that embodies her integrity, firmness, and social skills in her diplomatic relations with world leaders.
Few great leaders cover all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply some of them to succeed as the main pioneer of their organization or situation.
Ontological-phenomenological model
One of the more recent definitions of leadership comes from Werner Erhard, Michael C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger who describes leadership as "an exercise in language that produces a future realization that will not happen anyway, whose future meets (or contributes to fulfill) the concerns of the relevant parties... ". This definition ensures that leadership speaks about the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the parties concerned. This is different from dealing with the related parties as "followers" and calling the image of a single leader with others following. On the contrary, a future that meets on the fundamental concerns of the stakeholders suggests that a future that will not happen is not a "leader idea," but rather what comes from digging deeper to discover the underlying concerns of those influenced by leadership.
Context
Organization
Organizations designated as instruments or means for achieving defined goals have been referred to as formal organizations . The design determines how goals are shared and reflected in organizational subdivisions. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, occupations, and tasks form this working structure. Thus, formal organizations are expected to behave impersonally in terms of relationships with clients or with their members. According to Weber's definition, the entry and subsequent progress are based on merit or seniority. Employees receive salaries and enjoy title titles that protect them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or clients in power. The higher the position of a person in a hierarchy, the greater the skill of a person suspected in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of work performed at the lower levels of the organization. This is the bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of the head or head of the administrative subdivision within the organization and gives them the authority attached to its position.
Unlike the head or head of a designated administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. Informal organizations reveal the personal goals and objectives of individual membership. Their goals and objectives may or may not coincide with formal organizations. The informal organization is an extension of the social structure that generally characterizes human life - the emergence of groups and organizations spontaneously as an end in themselves.
In prehistoric times, mankind was busy with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now mankind spends most of the waking hours working for the organization. The need to identify with communities that provide security, protection, maintenance, and feelings of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by informal and emerging leaders, or unofficial organizations.
Leaders emerge from within the informal organizational structure. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership in one or more overlay structures. Instead of the position authority held by the head or the designated head, the emerging leader holds influence or power. Influence is one's ability to gain cooperation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Strength is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of punishment tools.
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific outcome. It does not depend on a formal title or authority. (Elevos, paraphrased from Leader, Bennis, and Attendance Leadership, Halpern & Lubar.) Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed under certain conditions and be seen as meeting the expectations of an organization or society. "Leaders are recognized by their capacity to care for others, clear communication, and a commitment to survival. A person designated for a managerial position has the right to govern and enforce compliance based on the authority of their position. However, he or she must have sufficient personal attributes to adjust this authority, since authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager can be confronted by emerging leaders who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce him to the head of the doll. However, only position authorities have the support of formal sanctions. Therefore, anyone who uses personal influence and power can legitimize this simply by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with equal authority. Leadership can be defined as a person's ability to get others to follow voluntarily. Every organization needs a leader at every level.
Management
Over the years, the philosophical terms of "management" and "leadership", in the organizational context, have been used both as synonyms and with distinctly different meanings. The debate is fairly general about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an awareness of the distinctions made by Burns (1978) between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent rewards, management with exceptions) and "transformational leadership" "(characterized by charisma, personal relationships, creativity).
Group
Unlike individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called leadership, more than one person gives direction to the group as a whole. This is further characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation and mutual influence among team members. Some organizations have taken this approach in the hope of enhancing creativity, reducing costs, or reducing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss for spending too much on team performance. In some situations, the team members most capable of handling certain phases of the project become temporary leaders. In addition, as each team member has the opportunity to experience an increased level of empowerment, it energizes the staff and feeds the success cycle.
Leaders who demonstrate perseverance, persistence, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring the same qualities within their group. Good leaders use their own inner mentors to energize their team and organization and lead the team to achieve success.
Menurut National School Boards Association (AS):
The Leadership or Leadership Team of this Group has special characteristics:
Team Characteristics
- There must be a conscious unity on the part of all its members.
- There must be an interpersonal relationship. Members should have the opportunity to contribute, and learn from and work with others.
- Members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
Ten team characteristics that work properly:
- Purpose: Members proudly share the sense of why a team exists and is invested in completing its mission and goals.
- Priority: Members know what to do next, by whom, and when to reach team goals.
- Roles: Members know their roles in completing tasks and when to allow more advanced members to perform certain tasks.
- Decisions: Authorities and decision lines are clearly understood.
- Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered essential for personal decision making and growth.
- Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are valued and put to good use.
- Norm: Group norms to work with are defined and viewed as the default for everyone in the group.
- Effectiveness: Members find efficient and productive team meetings and look forward to the moment together.
- Success: Members know clearly when the team has met successfully and shared in this with the same and proud.
- Training: Opportunities to get feedback and update skills are provided and utilized by team members.
Self-leadership
Self-leadership is a process that takes place within an individual, not an external action. It is an expression of who we are as human beings.
Animal
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership (2011) provides evidence of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms that support human leadership also appear in other social species. Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, at Demonic Males: Apes and Origins of Human Violence (1996), present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all animals living on Earth, have the same tendency for a group behavior: violence, territoriality, and competition to unite behind one male head from the ground. This position is controversial. Many animals other than apes are territorial, competitive, violent, and have a social structure controlled by dominant males (lions, wolves, etc.), showing evidence of Wrangham and Peterson not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well, including elephants (the matriarchal and the alpha female), the meerkat (which is also matriarchal), the sheep (which follow the castrated bellwethers) and many others.
In comparison, bonobos, the second closest human species relative, do not unite unite behind the male head on the ground. Bonobo shows respect for an alpha or a top woman who, with the support of her coalition of other women, can prove as strong as the strongest man. So, if leadership amounts to getting the largest number of followers, then among bonobos, a woman almost always provides the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the alleged nature of the bonobo peace or with its reputation as a "hippie chimp".
Myth
Leadership, though much talked about, has been described as one of the most unfamiliar concepts in all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers have emphasized the prevalence of this misconception, stating that the existence of multiple defect, or myth, assumptions about leadership often disrupts the individual conception of what leadership is (Gardner 1965; Bennis, 1975).
Leadership is congenital
According to some, leadership is determined by typical disposition characteristics present at birth (eg, extraversion, intelligence, ingenuity). However, according to Forsyth (2009) there is evidence to suggest that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation. With
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