A genetically modified organism ( GMO ) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering (ie, genetically engineered organism ) . GMOs are used to produce many genetically modified drugs and foods and are widely used in scientific research and production of other items. The term GMO is very close to the term technical law, 'modified organism', defined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which regulates international trade in living GMOs (in particular, "any living organism that has a new combination of genetic material obtained through the use of biotechnology modern ").
Specific GMO types are "transgenic organisms." It is an organism whose genetic structure has been altered by the addition of genetic material from unrelated organisms. This can not be likened to a more general way in which "GMO" is used to classify genetically modified organisms, as it is usually GMOs whose genetically modified organisms have been altered without the addition of genetic material from unrelated organisms.
The first genetically engineered mouse was created in 1974, and the first plant was produced in 1983.
Video Genetically modified organism
Production
Genetic modification involves mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes. The inserted gene usually comes from a different species in the form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. This can be done artificially by:
- attach genes to viruses.
- physically inserts extra DNA into the intended host core with a very small syringe.
- using electroporation (ie, introducing DNA from one organism to another cell using an electrical pulse).
- fires small particles from a gene gun.
Other methods exploit the natural form of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, or the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells.
Maps Genetically modified organism
History
Humans have kept plants and animals since about 12,000 BC, using selective breeding or artificial selection (in contrast to natural selection). Selective breeding processes, in which organisms with desirable traits (and thus with desirable genes) are used to breed the next generation and non-cultured organisms, are the forerunners of the concept of modern genetic modification. The advances in genetics allow humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore the genes of the organism. In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with a lambda virus.
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first genetically engineered organism (GMO) in 1973. They took the gene from a bacterium that gave resistance to antibiotic kanamycin, put it in a plasmid and then induced other bacteria to take the plasmid. The bacteria are then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin. Boyer and Cohen express other genes in bacteria. These included genes from the Xenopus laevis frog in 1974, creating the first transgenic gene expressed from an organism from different kingdoms.
In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch invented the transgenic mice by introducing foreign DNA into the embryo, making it the first transgenic animal in the world. But it took eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene into their offspring. Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carry cloned oncogenes, allowing them to develop cancer. Mice with knockout gene were created in 1989. The first transgenic cattle were produced in 1985 and the first animals to synthesize transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, engineered to produce plasminogen activator of human tissue in 1987.
In 1983 the first genetic engineering plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton. They infect tobacco with Agrobacterium altered with antibiotic resistance genes and through tissue culture techniques can grow new plants containing resistance genes. Gene rifles were discovered in 1987, allowing plant transformation not susceptible to infection of Agrobacterium . In 2000, the golden rice fortified with vitamin A, was the first crop developed with increased nutritional value.
In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson; A year later, the company produced human protein (somatostatin) at E.coli . Genentech announced the production of human genetic engineering insulin in 1978. Insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982. In 1988 the first human antibodies were produced in plants. In 1987, the ice-minus strain Pseudomonas syringae became the first genetically engineered organism released to the environment when strawberry fields and potato fields in California were sprayed with it.
The first genetically engineered crop, antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, was produced in 1982. China was the first country to commercialize transgenic crops, introducing virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene obtained approval to release commercial Flavr Savr tomatoes, genetically engineered foods first. Also in 1994, the EU approved tobacco engineered to resist bromoxynil herbicide, making it the first commercially engineered plant to be commercialized in Europe. Insect resistant potatoes were approved for release in the US in 1995, and in 1996 approval was granted to commercially plant 8 transgenic crops and one flower plant (carnation) in 6 countries plus the EU.
In 2010, scientists at J. Craig Venter Institute, announced that they have created the first synthetic bacterial genome. They named it Synthia and it was the first synthetic life form in the world.
The first commercialized genetically engineered animal is GloFish, a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene that allows it to glow in the dark under ultraviolet light. The first genetically engineered animal approved for food use is AquAdvantage salmon by 2015. Salmon is altered with growth hormone regulatory genes from Chinook Pacific salmon and promoters of sullen seagrass that allow it to grow throughout the year, not just during spring and summer.
Usage
GMOs are used in biological and medical research, production of pharmaceutical drugs, experimental drugs (eg gene therapy and vaccines against Ebola virus), and agriculture (eg gold rice, herbicide resistance), by developing use in conservation. The term "genetically modified organism" does not necessarily imply, but may include, the insertion of a targeted gene from one species to another. For example, a gene from a jellyfish, a fluorescent protein encoding called GFP, or a green fluorescent protein, can be physically linked and thus expressed with a mammalian gene to identify the location of a protein encoded by a gene tagged GFP in a mammal. cell. The method is a useful tool for biologists in many areas of research, including those who study the mechanisms of human and other diseases or fundamental biological processes in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells.
Microbe
Bacteria
Bacteria are the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, because they are relatively easy to modify their genetics.
They continue to be important model organisms for experiments in genetic engineering. In the field of synthetic biology, they have been used to test various synthetic approaches, from synthesizing genomes to creating new nucleotides.
These organisms are now used for several purposes, and are essential in producing large amounts of pure human protein for use in medicine.
Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce insulin proteins to treat diabetes. Similar bacteria have been used to produce biofuels, clotting factors to treat hemophilia, and human growth hormones to treat various forms of dwarfism.
Virus
In 2017 researchers genetically modify viruses to express spinach defensin proteins. The virus was injected into an orange tree to combat citrus-greening disease that has reduced the production of 70% oranges since 2005.
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In addition, various genetically engineered micro-organisms are routinely used as an enzyme source for the manufacture of various processed foods. These include alpha-amylase from bacteria, which convert starch into simple sugars, chymosin from bacteria or fungi, which clumps milk proteins for cheese making, and pectinesterase from the fungus, which increases the clarity of fruit juice.
Plants
Transgenic plants
Transgenic plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colors in plants, and to create different plants.
In research, plants are engineered to help discover the function of certain genes. One way to do this is to get rid of the desired genes and see what phenotype is developing. Another strategy is to attach the genes to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is expressed. A common technique used to find out where the gene is expressed is to attach it to a GUS or similar reporter gene that allows location visualization. '
After thirteen years of collaborative research, an Australian company - Florigene, and Japanese company - Suntory, created a blue rose (actually lavender or mauve) in 2004. Genetic engineering involves three changes - adding two genes, and interfering with the other. One of the genes added is the pigmented delphinidin blue plant cloned from pansies. The researchers then used RNA interference technology to suppress all color production by endogenous genes by blocking important proteins in color production, called dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), and adding protein variants that would not be blocked by RNAi but that would allow delphinidin works. Roses are sold in Japan, the United States, and Canada. Florigene has also created and sold genre-engineered lavender colored carnations in the same way.
Simple plant and plant cells have been genetically engineered to produce biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors compared to cultivating crops in open fields. The work has been done with duckweed Lemna minor , algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and mosses Physcomitrella patens . The Israeli company, Protalix, has developed a method to produce therapy in carrots and transgenic tobacco cells that are cultivated. Protalix and its partner, Pfizer, received FDA approval to market the drug Elelyso, a treatment for Gaucher's disease, by 2012.
Genetically modified plants
Genetically modified plants (genetically engineered plants, or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, DNA that has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In many cases, the goal is to introduce new properties to plants that do not occur naturally within the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction of decay, or resistance to chemical treatments (eg herbicide resistance), or enhancing the nutrient profile of the plant. Examples in non-food crops include the production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other useful industrial goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Farmers have adopted many GM technologies. Between 1996 and 2013, the total land area cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 hectares) to 1,750,000 km 2 (432 million hectares). 10% of the world's agricultural land is grown with GM crops in 2010. In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted soybean area, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn are genetically modified varieties. In recent years, GE plants are growing rapidly in developing countries. In 2013, about 18 million farmers plant 54% of GM crops worldwide in developing countries.
For a discussion of GM crops and GM foods, see the Controversy section below and an article on the genetically modified food controversy.
Cisgenic plants
Cisgenesis, sometimes also called intragenesis, is a product designation for the genetically engineered crop category. Various classification schemes have been proposed to order genetically modified organisms based on the genotype change properties introduced rather than genetic engineering processes.
While some genetically modified crops are developed by the introduction of gene from a distant, species that is not sexually compatible into the host genome, the cisgenic plant contains genes that have been isolated either directly from host species or from sexually compatible species. New genes were introduced using recombinant DNA methods and gene transfer. Some scientists hope that the cisgenic plant approval process may be simpler than proper transgenic, but it remains to be seen.
Conservation at factory
Genetically modified organisms have been proposed to help conserve endangered plant species. Many trees face the threat of crops and invasive diseases, such as the emerald ash borer in North America and fungus diseases, Ceratocystis platani, in European plane trees. The suggested solution for enhancing the endurance of endangered tree species is by genetically modifying individuals by transferring resistant genes. Papaya trees are an example of a species successfully cultivated using genetic modification. Papaya ringspot (PRSV) papaya virus destroyed in Hawaii in the 20th century until transgenic papaya plants were given resistance from pathogens.
However, genetic modifications to plant conservation remain highly speculative and further experiments are required before this technique can be widely applied. The main concern with using genetic modification for conservation purposes is that transgenic species may no longer have sufficient resemblance to native species to actually claim that native species are being preserved. In contrast, GMO species may be quite genetically different to be considered as new species, thereby reducing the value of conservation of genetic modification.
Mammals
Genetically modified mammals are an important category of genetically modified organisms. Ralph L. Brinster and Richard Palmiter developed techniques responsible for transgenic mice, rats, rabbits, sheep, and pigs in the early 1980s, and established many of the first transgenic models of human disease, including the first carcinoma caused by transgene. The animal genetic engineering process is a slow, drab and expensive process. However, new technology makes genetic modification easier and more precise.
The first genetically modified (GM) transgenic animal was produced by injecting DNA into mouse embryos and then infusing the embryo in female rats.
Genetically modified animals that are currently being developed can be placed into six different broad classes based on the intended genetic modification purposes:
- to research human diseases (eg, developing animal models for this disease);
- to manufacture industrial or consumer products (fiber for many uses);
- to produce products intended for human therapeutic use (pharmaceutical or tissue products for implantation);
- to enrich or enhance the interaction of animals with humans (hypo-allergenic pets);
- to improve the quality of production or quality of food (fish grow faster, pigs digest food more efficiently);
- to improve animal health (disease resistance)
Use research
Transgenic animals are used as experimental models to perform phenotypic and for testing in biomedical research.
Genetically modified (genetically engineered) animals become more important for drug discovery and development and treatment for many serious diseases. By changing DNA or transferring DNA to animals, we can develop certain proteins that can be used in medical care. Stable human protein expression has been developed in many animals, including sheep, pigs, and mice. Human-alpha-1-antitrypsin, which has been tested on sheep and used in treating humans with this deficiency and transgenic pigs with human-histo compatibility have been studied in the hope that organs will be suitable for transplantation with little possible rejection.
Scientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include green fluorescent protein (GFP), first observed in jellyfish, Aequorea victoria in 1962, for medical research purposes (Chalfie, Shimoura, and Tsien were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2008 for the discovery and development of GFP). For example, neon pigs have been bred to study transplantation of human organs (xenotransplantation), ocular photoreceptor cell regeneration, and other topics. In 2011 the Japanese-American team created a green fluorescent cat to find therapy for HIV/AIDS and other diseases as a feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) associated with HIV.
In 2009, scientists in Japan announced that they had successfully transferred genes to primate species (marmosets) and produced a stable line of transgenic primates for the first time. Their first research target for this marmoset is Parkinson's disease, but they also consider amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease.
Human therapies and xenotransplant
In a field known as pharming, intensive research has been conducted to develop transgenic animals that produce biotherapeutics. On February 6, 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the first human biological drugs produced from such animals, a goat. The drug, ATryn, is an anticoagulant that reduces the likelihood of blood clots during surgery or labor. It was extracted from goat's milk.
Some animals are also genetically modified so that they can provide suitable and safe organs for human transplants (xenotransplants). Examples are genetically modified pigs so that their organs can no longer carry retroviruses (which can pose a danger to humans, when transplanted into them). Other genetically modified pigs have alpha galactosidase transferases that are destroyed and enriched with hCD46 and hTM molecules. Lymphatic pigs from genetically modified pigs for example have been considered for transplant to humans. In addition to the use of genetic modifications to enable the provision of safer animal organs for transplantation, genetic modification can also be used to allow animals to grow human organs in their bodies. Such animals, which therefore comprise a mixture of cells from more than one species, are called "chimera." One project, conducted by Pablo Ross of the University of California, involves the growth of human pancreas in pigs.
Food quality character
In 2006, pigs were engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids through the expression of the roundworm genes.
Enviropig is a line of genetically developed Yorkshire pigs in Canada that are made with the ability to digest plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional Yorkshire pigs. The project ends in 2012. These pigs produce phytase enzymes, which break down the digestible phosphorus, in their saliva. Enzymes are introduced to the pig chromosome by pronuklear microinjections. With this enzyme, these animals are able to digest the cereal of wheat phosphorus. The use of these pigs will reduce the potential for water pollution because they release 30 to 70.7% less phosphorus in manure depending on age and diet. Lower phosphorus concentrations in surface runoff reduce the growth of algae, because phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for algae. Because algae consume large amounts of oxygen, algae can cause dead zones for fish.
In 2011, Chinese scientists produced dairy cows that were genetically engineered with genes from humans to produce the same milk as human milk. This is potentially beneficial for mothers who can not produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula milk. In addition to milk production, the researchers claim the transgenic cow is identical to that of an ordinary cow. Two months later scientists from Argentina presented Rosita, a transgenic cow that combines two human genes, to produce milk with properties similar to human milk. In 2012, researchers from New Zealand are also developing genetically engineered cows that produce allergy-free milk.
Goats have been genetically engineered to produce milk with silk proteins like strong spiders in their milk.
Human gene therapy
Gene therapy, using genetically modified viruses to produce genes that can cure disease in humans. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has some success. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's innate amaurosis. Treatment is also being developed for a variety of currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Parkinson's disease, cancer, diabetes, heart disease and muscular dystrophy.
Conservation use
Genetically modified organisms have been used to preserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and Australia. In both cases, the genetically modified organism used is the myxoma virus, but for the opposite purpose: to protect endangered populations in Europe by immunization and to regulate an overabundance population in Australia by contraception.
In the Iberian peninsula, the population of European wild rabbits has experienced a sharp decline from viral diseases and excessive hunting. To protect the species from viral disease, the myxoma virus is genetically modified to immunize the rabbit. The population of European wild rabbits in Australia faces the opposite problem: the lack of natural predators has made the introduced species invasive. The same genomically modified myxoma virus is modified to decrease fertility in the Australian rabbit population.
Fish
Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research and as pets, and are being considered for use as food and as sensors of water pollution.
GM fish is widely used in genetic and developmental research. Two species of fish, zebra and medaka, are most often modified because they have clear chorion (membrane in egg), develop rapidly, and 1-cell embryos are easily seen and injected with transgenic DNA.
The GloFish is a patented brand of transgenic fluorescent zebrafish with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent colors. Although originally not developed for ornamental fish trade, it became the first genetically engineered animal that was publicly available as a pet when it was introduced for sale in 2003. They were quickly banned for sale in California.
GM fish have been developed with promoters that encourage excessive production of "all fish" growth hormones for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce the pressure of catching on wild stocks. This results in a dramatic increase in growth in some species, including salmon, trout, and indigo. AquaBounty Technologies, a biotech company working to bring GM salmon to the market, claims that their GM AquAdvantage salmon can mature in half the time as wild salmon. AquaBounty applied for approval to market their GM salmon in the US, and approved in November 2015. On 25 November 2013 Canada approved the commercial production and export of GM Salmon eggs but they were not approved for human consumption in Canada.
Several academic groups have developed GM zebra fish to detect water pollution. The GloFish laboratories discussed above initially developed it to change the color in the presence of pollutants, to be used as environmental sensors. A lab at the University of Cincinnati has developed a GM-made zebra fish for the same purpose, as has a lab at Tulane University.
Recent research on fish pain has led to raised concerns that genetic modification induced for scientific research may have a detrimental effect on fish welfare.
Frogs
Genetically modified frogs are used for scientific research and are widely used in basic research including genetics and early development. Two species of frogs, Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis , are most commonly used.
GM frogs are also used as pollution sensors, especially for endocrine disruptive chemicals.
Invertebrates
Fruit fly
In biological research, the transgenic fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) is a model organism used to study the effects of genetic change on development. Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals because of their short life cycles, low maintenance requirements, and relatively simple genomes compared to many vertebrates.
Mosquito
In 2010, scientists created a "malaria-resistant mosquito" in the laboratory. The World Health Organization estimates that malaria killed nearly a million people in 2008. Genetically modified genes containing deadly genes have been developed to combat the spread of dengue and the Zika virus. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the only dengue fever carrier and the Zika virus, is reduced by 80% in the 2010 GM mosquito experiments in the Cayman Islands and 90% in 2015 trials in Bahia, Brazil. In comparison, the Florida Keys Mosquito Control District only reaches 30-60% population reduction by trapping and spraying pesticides. In 2016 the FDA approves the genetic engineering mosquito intervention for Key West, Florida. British company Oxitec proposes the release of millions of modified (non-bitten) male mosquitoes to compete with wild males for their partners. Men are engineered so that their offspring die before adulthood, helping to eradicate mosquito-borne diseases. Final approval should be based on a local referendum to be held in November. Andrea Crisanti, a molecular biologist at Imperial College in London is working to stop the A. gambiae mosquito from infectious diseases.
Bollworms
Strain Pectinophora gossypiella (Bollworm Pink) has been genetically engineered to express the red fluorescence protein. This allowed the researchers to monitor the bollworms that had been sterilized by radiation and released to reduce bollworm infestations. Tension has been tested in the field for over three years and has been approved for release.
Cnidaria
Cnidarians such as Hydra and marine anemone Nematostella vectensis are interesting model organisms for studying the evolution of certain immunities and developmental processes. An important technical breakthrough is the development of procedures for the manufacture of stable transgenic hydrosia and marine anemones with microinjection embryos.
Rule
The genetic engineering regulations concern the approach taken by the government to assess and manage risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technologies and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), including genetically modified and genetically engineered fish. There are differences in transgenic arrangements between countries, with some of the most striking differences between the United States and Europe. Regulations vary in certain countries depending on the intended use of genetically engineered products. For example, plants that are not intended for food use are generally not reviewed by the authorities responsible for food safety. The EU differentiates between approvals for cultivation in the EU and approvals for import and processing. Although only a few GMOs are approved for planting in the EU, a number of GMOs have been approved for importation and processing. GMO cultivation has sparked a debate about the market for GMOs in Europe. Depending on the rules of coexistence, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops are different.
Controversy
There is controversy about GMOs, especially with regard to their use in producing food. This dispute involves buyers, biotech companies, government regulators, nongovernmental organizations, and scientists. The main areas of controversy related to GM foods are whether transgenic foods should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the effects of genetically engineered crops on health and the environment, the effects on pesticide resilience, the impact of genetically engineered crops on farmers, and the role of GM crops in feeding the world's population. By 2014, sales of products that have been labeled as non-GMO grew 30 percent to $ 1.1 billion.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available foods derived from GM crops have no greater risk to human health than conventional foods, but that every GM food should be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, community members are far more likely than scientists to assume GM food is safe. GM's legal status and food rules vary by country, with some countries banning or restricting them, and others allowing them at very different levels of regulation.
There have been no reports of adverse effects that have been proven in the human population for eating GM foods. Although labeling of GMO products on the market is required in many countries, it is not required in the United States and there is no difference between GMOs marketed and non-GMO foods recognized by the US FDA. In a May 2014 article in The Economist , it is said that, while GM food has the potential to help feed 842 million people who are malnourished globally, the law as endorsed in Vermont, to require labeling of foods containing genetic engineering. materials, could have unintended consequences from disrupting the process of spreading GM technology to poor countries that suffer from food safety issues.
The Organic Consumers Association, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace stated that risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they question the objectivity of regulatory authorities. Some health groups say there are unanswered questions about the potential long-term impact on human health from GMO-derived foods, and proposes mandatory labeling or a moratorium on the product. Concerns include contamination of genetically modified food supplies, transgenic effects on the environment and nature, regulatory process determinations, and consolidation of food supply controls in companies that make and sell GMOs, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.
See also
References
External links
- ISAAA database
- GMO-Compass: Information on genetically engineered organisms
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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