Dehumanization or its actions can describe behaviors or processes that underestimate individuality and others. Behaviorally, dehumanization describes the disposition of others who underestimate the individuality of others as "individual" or "individual" species, such as a person who acts inhuman to man. As a process, it can be understood as the opposite of personification, a metaphor in which inanimate objects or abstractions are blessed with human qualities; dehumanization is the release of this same quality or reduction to abstraction, for example. The technological revolution causes the dehumanization of the labor market to the point of antiquation.
In almost all contexts, dehumanization is used degradingly throughout the disturbance of social norms, with the first applicable to the actor (s) dehumanizing behavior and the latter applicable to the action (s) or the dehumanization process. When social norms define what human behavior, reflexively these same social norms define what human behavior is not, or what is inhumane. Dehumanization differs from inhumane behavior or processes in its width to include the emergence of competing social norms. This then emerges as dehumanizing until the old norms are lost to competing new norms, which will then redefine dehumanization. If new norms lose acceptance then action remains one of dehumanization and its severity is a comparison with past examples throughout history. However, the definition of dehumanization remains in a reflexive state of token-type ambiguity relative to both individual and community scale.
Biologically, dehumanization can be described as a species introduced to marginalize a human species or an introduced person/process that disparages others inhumanely.
In political science and jurisprudence dehumanization is the transfer of human rights or the denaturization of natural rights, a definition that depends on international law rather than social norms limited by human geography. In this context, specialization in species need not apply to form global citizenship or its inalienable rights; both inherited by the human genome.
It theorizes to take two forms: the dehumanizing humanism, which is used on an inter-group basis, and mechanistic dehumanization, which is used on an interpersonal basis. Dehumanization can occur discursively (eg, an idiomatic language that equates a particular human with nonhuman animals, verbal abuse, voiding a person's voice from discourse), symbolically (eg, imagery), or physically (eg, slavery, physical abuse, refused contact). Dehumanization often ignores the individuality of the target (ie, the creative and interesting aspects of their personality) and can prevent a person from feeling empathy or understanding the group of people who have the stigma correctly.
Dehumanization can be done by social institutions (such as state, school, or family), interpersonal, or even within. Dehumanization can be unintentional, especially on the part of the individual, as with some kind of de facto racism. The state-regulated dehumanization is historically directed against minorities considered political, racial, ethnic, national or religious. Individuals and other minority and minority groups (based on sexual orientation, gender, disability, class, or some other organizing principle) are also vulnerable to various forms of dehumanization. The concept of dehumanization has received empirical attention in psychological literature. Conceptually related to infahumanization, delegitimization, moral exclusion, and objectification. Dehumanization occurs in multiple domains; facilitated by status, power, and social connections; and result in behaviors such as exclusion, violence, and support for violence against others.
"Dehumanization is seen as a major component of group violence because it is often the most important precursor to moral exclusion, a process in which stigmatization groups are placed outside the boundaries where moral values, rules, and judicial considerations apply."
David Livingstone Smith, director and founder of The Human Nature Project at the University of New England, argues that historically, humans have degraded each other for thousands of years.
Video Dehumanization
Humanness
In Herbert Kelman's work on dehumanization, humanity has two features: "identity" (ie, people's perceptions "as individuals, independent and indistinguishable from others, able to make choices") and "community" (ie, people's perceptions as " network of interconnected individuals who care for each other "). When targeted agencies and community engagements are denied, they no longer provoke compassion or other moral responses, and may experience violence as a result.
Maps Dehumanization
Animalistic versus mechanistic
In Nick Haslam's review of dehumanization, he distinguishes between unique human characteristics (UH), which distinguishes humans from non-human animals, and human nature (HN), characteristic that is central to humanity. His model shows that different types of dehumanization arise from the rejection of a sense of humanity or another. Language, high order cognition, subtle emotions, modesty, and morality are unique human characteristics (ie, human traits have non-human animals do not). Cognitive flexibility, emotionality, vital agency, and warmth are essential to human nature. Characteristics of human nature are considered to be widely shared among groups (ie, every human has these qualities), while unique human characteristics (eg, modesty, morality) are considered to vary between groups.
According to Haslam, the animalistic form of dehumanization occurs when unique human characteristics (eg, refinement, moral sensitivity) are rejected for outgroup. People who suffer from dehumanization of animals are seen as immoral, unintelligent, and lacking in self-control, and they are likened to animals. This had happened to the Jews during the Holocaust, and the natives were subjected to colonization and slavery. Although commonly used on an intergroup basis, dehumanizing humanism can occur interpersonally as well.
A mechanistic form occurs when features of human nature (eg, cognitive flexibility, warmth, agency) are denied to the target. The mechanistic dehumanization target is seen as a cold, rigid, interchangeable, less, and equated agent with machinery or objects. Mechanical dehumanization is usually done interpersonally (for example, when a person is seen as a means to an end).
Associated psychological process
Several lines of psychological research are related to the concept of dehumanization. Infrahumanization shows that individuals think and treat outside members of the group as "less human" and more like animals; while Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeld uses the term pseudo-speciation, the term he borrowed from psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, implying that an inhuman person or person is considered not a member of the human species. In particular, individuals associate secondary emotions (seen as unique human beings) more with ingroups than with outgroups. Primary emotions (emotions experienced by all living things, both human and other animals) and found more related to outgroup. Dehumanization is intrinsically connected with violence. Often, a person can not seriously harm another person without first humanizing it in a person's mind (as a form of rationalization.) Military training, among other things, systematic desensitization and dehumanization of the enemy, and warriors and women may find it. psychologically necessary to refer to the enemy as an animal or other non-human being. Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman has pointed out that without such desensitization it would be difficult, if not impossible for someone to kill other humans, even in combat or under threat to their own lives.
Delegitimization is "categorizing groups into extreme negative social categories excluded from human groups considered to act within the limits of acceptable norms and/or values."
Moral exceptions occur when outsiders are subject to a set of different moral, rules, and justice values ​​that are used in social relationships with ingroup members. When individuals degrade others, they no longer have difficulty when they treat them badly. Moral exceptions are used to describe extreme behaviors such as genocide, harsh immigration policies, and eugenics, but can also occur at a more regular daily discriminatory level. In laboratory studies, people who are described as lacking human qualities have been found to be treated in a rough and abusive manner.
Martha Nussbaum (1999) identifies seven components of objectification: "mediation," "rejection of autonomy," "inertia," "fungibility," "transgression," "possession," and "denial of subjectivity."
In psychology, high-level cognitive processes such as social cognition can occur between humans and humans, or humans and non-humans, humans and objects. Assignments that occur in social cognition show non-human targets can project internal life, or emotional and cognitive experiences that are conscious. The mental state projected onto non-human objects and life forms can occur without intention. Study by Heberlein, Adolphs, Tranel & amp; Damasio, Heberlein AS, Adolphs R, Tranel D, Damasio H. The cortical area for emotional assessment and the personality traits of a pedestrian-light point explores the perceptual constant of biological movement within the area of ​​the human brain, where participants will infer the intent between objects have no emotion or cognition whatsoever. It is also possible for subjects to anthropomorphize the spectrum of inanimate and non-human life forms. In children there is a common pattern of projecting the other imaginary, both human and not, and a child is able to interact with the other imaginary without much effort as if the other is projected to exist. With the ease of anthropomorphic projection, the lack of social cognition of children to fellow human beings is surprising. Inhuman perception often means cognitive bias experienced through lack of consideration for common thoughts, feelings, and mental content of social target cognition. This inhuman perception can occur when the target has generated further disgust or negative responses when in touch with an inhuman subject. Humans who are perceived to have a lower social status such as an addicted and homeless person are often seen as low in cognitive and low warmth in the reliability of social competence. This often leads to more frequent disgust than the higher social standing when cognition is projected by an inhuman subject. Humans can suddenly consider the mental cognition of people who experience emotions from various social, connecting in groups of positive social figures for pride, connecting rich groups and envious feelings of the upper classes, and experiencing pity towards groups of people disabled and parents. Through a study by Fiske, Cuddy, & amp; Glick in 2007, the stereotypical content model shows that social targets such as the elderly and the rich are trustworthy, friendly, and capable abilities because of their perceived competence and warmth. However, groups among the disabled, the poor, the addicted, and the immigrants were noted as a trigger of disgust due to the projection of warmth and a low incapacity.
Human perception has been indicated to occur when subjects experience low frequency of activation in their neural network of social cognition. These include neural network areas such as superior temporal sulcus and medial prefrontal cortex. A study by Frith & amp; Frith in 2001 showed that the criticality of social interactions in neural networks has a tendency for the subjects to not humanize what is seen as impulses that lead to social disengagement. Tasks involving social cognition typically activate the neural network responsible for subjective projections of disgusting perceptions and patterns of dehumanization. "In addition to target manipulation, social purpose manipulation validates this prediction: Inferring preference, mental-state inference, significantly improves MPFC and STS activity to these inhumane targets." A 2007 study by Harris, McClure, van den Bos, Cohen & amp; Fiske suggests the mental reliability of subjects to social cognition of dehumanization due to decreased neural activity against projected targets, replicating across stimuli and contexts.
Facilitating factors
While the social distance of the outer group targets is a necessary condition for dehumanization, some research indicates that it is not enough. Psychological research has identified high status, strength, and social relations as additional factors that influence whether dehumanization will occur. If being an outgroup member is all that is required to be inhumane, dehumanization will be much more common. However, only members of the high status group connect more human beings with ingroups than outgroups. Members of the low status group showed no difference in relationships with humans. Having a high status makes one more likely to degrade others. Low status groups are more related to human nature (warmth, emotionality) than unique human characteristics, implying that they are closer to animals than humans because these traits are typical of humans but can be seen in other species. In addition, other work lines find that individuals in positions of power are more likely to realize their subordinates, treating them as a means of ending themselves rather than focusing on their basic human qualities. Finally, social relations, thinking about the near or present in the real presence of others, enable dehumanization by reducing attribution of the human mental state, increasing support for treating targets such as animals, and increasing the desire to support harsh interrogation tactics. This is surprising because social relationships have documented benefits for personal health and well-being but seem to undermine intergroup relationships.
Neuroimaging studies have found that the medial prefrontal cortex - the area of ​​the brain involved specifically in linking mental states with others - indicates reduced activation for very inhumane targets (ie, judged, according to stereotypical content models, as low-warmth and low- competition, such as drug addicts or homeless people).
Race and ethnicity
Dehumanization often occurs as a result of conflict within the context of intergroup. Ethnic and other races are often described as animals in popular culture and scholarships. There is evidence that this representation survives in the American context with African Americans implicitly associated with apes. To the extent that one has this implicit inhuman association, they are more likely to support violence against African-Americans (for example, the judge's decision to execute the defendant). Historically, dehumanization has often been associated with genocide conflicts within ideologies before and during conflicts that link victims with rodents/pests. Immigrants are also inhuman in this way. In the 1900s, the Australian Constitution and the British Government took part in an Act to establish Australian states. Sections 51 (xxvi) and 127 are two inhuman Aboriginal provisions. 51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have the power to make law for peace, order and good governance of the Commonwealth in respect of: (xxvi) Persons of any race, other than Aboriginal people in any state, to who is deemed necessary to make a special law. 127. In counting the number of persons of the Commonwealth, or other states or parts of the Commonwealth, Aboriginal natives shall not be counted. In 1902, the Commonwealth Franchise Act was adopted, these categorically rejected Aboriginal people of voting rights. Indigenous Australians are not allowed social security benefits such as pensions and maternity benefits. However, this benefit is granted to other non-Indigenous Australians by the Commonwealth Government. Aborigines in rural areas are discriminated against and controlled where and how they can marry, work, live, and their movements are restricted.
Objectification
Fredrickson and Roberts argue that the sexual objectivity of women transcends pornography (which emphasizes women's bodies over unique mental and emotional characteristics of humans) to society in general. There is a normative emphasis on the appearance of women that causes women to take third-person perspective on their bodies. The psychological distances that women feel from their bodies can cause them to not humanize themselves. Several studies have shown that women and men exhibit "the biased introduction of sexual body parts", in which female sexual body parts are better recognized when presented separately than in the context of their entire body, whereas male sexual body parts are better recognized in the context of their entire body rather than in isolation. Men who do not humanize women as animals or objects are more likely to rape and sexually harass women and display more negative attitudes toward female rape victims.
Country and government role
Sociologists and historians often see dehumanization as a center of war. Governments sometimes represent "enemies" of civilians or soldiers as less than human so that voters will be more likely to support the war they can consider mass murder. Dictatorship uses the same process to prevent opposition by citizens. Such an endeavor often relies on previous pre-existing racist, sectarian, or biased beliefs, played by the government through various media types, presenting "enemies" as barbaric, as unfit as rights, and as a threat to the nation. Or, countries sometimes present enemy governments or ways of life as barbarians and citizens as children and unable to manage their own affairs. Such arguments have been used as reasons for colonialism.
The Holocaust during World War II and the Rwandan Genocide has been referred to as cruelty facilitated by the dehumanization of the government against its citizens. In the case of the Holocaust, propaganda breeding by the government created a culture of dehumanization of the Jewish population. Crimes such as the death penalty (especially in the United States) are often regarded as a result of popular fanaticism and the apathy of government.
Anthropologists Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson famously write that dehumanization may be considered the "fifth horseman of the apocalypse" because of the invaluable damage that the community has handled. When people become things, logic follows, they become useless, and any cruelty can be justified.
Dehumanization can be seen outside of a very violent conflict, as in political debates in which the opponent is shown as a fool or a collective evil. Such "good-to-evil" claims help end a substantive debate (see also thinking-ending clichés).
The role of terrorist and rebel
Non-state actors - especially terrorists - are also forced to dehumanize to advance their goals and assuage guilt. The 1960 terrorist group The Weather Underground has advocated violence against any authority figure, and uses the idea of ​​"police is a pig" to convince members that they do not harm humans, but only kill wild animals. Likewise, rhetorical statements such as "terrorists are just rubbish", are dehumanizing actions.
Systematic destruction
A study that investigates racial law enforcement violence using virtual simulators to investigate "firing or not shooting" responses. The study conducted that participants' responses were influenced by racial bias. When the simulator presented a black gunman, the participants fired faster and more accurately than an armed white man. Responding to "do not shoot", the reaction time command of the unarmed male black man was slower and less accurate than the unarmed white man. The Center for Disease Control of statistics on law enforcement killings between 1999 and 2011 shows that African American youth between the ages of 15 and 19 are 2.8 times more likely to be killed by law enforcement than the national average of all races and age groups. A study conducted with a majority of white students and also dominated by white male law enforcement found that participants exaggerated the age of African American children for 4.59 years, translated to thirteen and a half year old boys would be misunderstood as a legal adult. Every year, 250,000 children are processed through adult social facilities; this is a physical and mental health disorder. Compared to children in youth facilities, children convicted as adults, five times more likely to be sexually assaulted, twice as likely to be assaulted by prison staff, and eight times more likely to commit suicide. The implicit dehumanization estimates the tendency of excessive force used by law enforcement against African American suspects compared to other races. The work of Herbert Kelman, "Violence without moral restraint: Reflection on the dehumanization of victims and victims", illustrates how the American dehumanization above with African ancestors is occurring. The understanding of human killing is so strong that victims must be removed from their human status if systematic killings will occur. Victims are then inhumane by placing them "beyond the limits in which moral values, rules, and judgments of justice apply", the principle of death is no longer valid. To build others as fully human beings, signifies the sadness of their deaths, regardless of race background, and our personal relationship with that person. When referring to identity, death is individual; when referring to the community, death is experienced personally. The involvement of the bureaucratic apparatus is one of dehumanization.
Human anatomy
In the United States, African Americans are dehumanized through a classification considered primates, not humans. The United States Constitution, which took place in 1787, states that collecting "all others" census data in reference to enslaved Africa would be counted as three-fifths of a human being. In the 1990s it was reported California State Police classified incidents involving African-American boys because no human was involved. A California police officer who was also involved in beating Rodney King described the dispute between an African couple and African descent as "something of a gorilla in the fog". Franz Boas and Charles Darwin hypothesize that there may be a process of evolution among primates. Monkeys and apes are the least evolved, then ferocious and/or anthropoid defects referring to people of African descent, to Caucasians as the most evolved.
In science, medicine, and technology
A relatively recent history has seen the connection between dehumanization and science resulting in unethical scientific research. The Tuskegee syphilis experiment and the Nazi human experiment on the Jews are two examples. In the first, African Americans with syphilis were recruited to participate in the study of the course of the disease. Even when treatment and healing finally developed, they were detained from Black participants so the researchers could continue their studies. Similarly, Nazi scientists conducted horrific experiments against the Jews during the Holocaust. This is justified in the name of research and progress which is an indication of the immense influence that the culture of dehumanization has inflicted upon this society. When this research was revealed, efforts were made to protect future study participants, and now an institutional review board exists to protect individuals from being exploited by scientists.
In the medical context, the passage of time has made some dehumanizing practices more acceptable, no less. While human corpses are seen as dehumanization in the Dark Ages (see Anatomical History), the value of dissection as training aid is such that it is now more widely accepted. Dehumanization has been associated with modern medicine generally, and in particular, has been suggested as a coping mechanism for physicians working with patients late in life. Researchers have identified six potential causes of dehumanization in treatment: deindivudation practices, patient agency disorders, inequalities (causes that do not facilitate the delivery of medical care), mechanization, empathy reduction, and moral discharge (which can be debated, facilitate the delivery of medical treatments).
From a patient's point of view, in some states of America, controversial legislation requires that a woman see her fetal ultrasound before she can have an abortion. Legal critics argue that it only sees the image of the fetus humanizing it, and the woman's bias against abortion. Similarly, a new study shows that subtle humanization of medical patients appears to improve care for these patients. Radiologists who evaluate X-rays report more details to the patient and express more empathy when the patient's facial image is accompanied by X-rays. It appears that the inclusion of photographs is against the dehumanization of the medical process.
Dehumanization has applications outside the traditional social context. Anthropomorphism (ie, observing mental nonhuman entities and physical capacities that reflect humanity) is the opposite of dehumanization, which occurs when the characteristics that apply to humans are rejected by other humans. Waytz, Epley, and Cacioppo suggest that the opposite of the factors that facilitate dehumanization (eg, high status, power, and social connections) should facilitate anthropomorphism. That is, low status, socially deprived people without power should be more likely to link human quality to pets or electronics than high status, high power, and socially connected persons.
Researchers have found that engaging in violent video game play reduces humanity's humanitarian and humanitarian perceptions of players who are subjected to in-game violence. While the players are inhumane, the video game characters that play it tend to be anthropomorphized.
Dehumanization has occurred historically under the pre-strained "progress in the name of science". During the St. Petersburg exhibition Louis World's in 1904, the human zoo showed some indigenous people from independent tribes around the world, especially a young man of the Congo, Ota Benga. The Bengali Prison is on display as a public service featuring "degraded and degenerated races". During this period religion is still the driving force behind many political and scientific actions, and because of this, eugenics is widely supported among the most prominent US scientific community, political figure, and industry elite. After allocating to New York in 1906, public protests led to a permanent ban and the closure of a human zoo in the United States.
History and colonialism
In Martin Luther King Jr.'s book about Civil Rights Why We Can not Wait , he explains "Our nation is born in genocide when it embraces the doctrine that native Americans, Indians, are inferior races."
Elder and human rights activist Mi'kmaq, Daniel N. Paul, has conducted extensive research written from historic records of horrific acts of violence against the Nations First Nations in North America. His work says European colonialism in Canada and America is the conquest of the indigenous population and constitutes a series of unequaled historical, unequivocal violent crimes against humanity. Tens of millions of First Nations die in the hands of European colonizers in an effort to adjust the overall land. Hundreds of civilizations and diverse communities that flourished throughout North America millions of years before Christopher Columbus's exploits were finally destroyed. Dehumanization takes place in the form of a barbaric genocide process of murder, rape, famine, slavery, allocation, and germ warfare. From the myriad of ways the English do ethnic cleansing, one of the most frequent is the practice of hunting and scalping bounties - where the colonial conquerors will attack the community and remove the scalp of children and adults. War crimes against scalping are most prevalent when maritime colonialists repeatedly try to exterminate the ancestors of Daniel N. Paul, Mi'kmaq. Scalping was a common practice in many parts of the United States along the way up to the 1860s in an effort to completely remove the first remaining Nations.
The Compton cafeteria riots preceded the 1969 riots and marked one of the first in American history that non-hetero-normative societies denied their oppressors of taking the agency by demanding human rights. This incident was the result of discrimination, harassment and, finally, inhumane violence against the LGBT community in the San Francisco tenderloin district. Until the unrest in the Compton cafeteria, the act of dressing in non-gender binary clothes is considered a criminal offense, and the police will respond to cross-dressers with frequent violence and offenses. Stories of sexual violence, police brutality, abuse of power, and the persistent arrest by local law enforcers against those seeking refuge in the tenderloin ghetto have been recounted in the Screaming Queens documentary: The Riot at Compton's Cafeteria.
Democracy and "human dignity"
German philosopher and anthropologist Axel Montenbruck wrote that dehumanization is closely related to "neutralization techniques" (David Matza/Gresham Sykes) and aspects of obedience from the Milgram experiment and in a broader sense with Stanford prison trial Philip Zimbardo.
Montenbruck continues that - in the light of our common Western civilization - dehumanization is based on political humanism, both in terms of human rights and Western democracy. Each is based on the aspect of "human dignity". Therefore, its "negation" can be seen as dehumanization in our common Western sense. Furthermore, in a light democracy, criminal law can be reduced to a simple formula: breaking a person means dehumanizing by taking "freedom, unjust and inhuman". The reaction of civilized Western society should "take liberty as well, but just and humane".
Language
The perception of dehumanization and inhumanity can occur as a result of the language used to describe a group of people. Words such as migrants, immigrants, and expatriates are assigned to foreigners based on their social status and wealth, not political abilities, achievements, and alignment. Expatriates have been found to be a word to describe special, often light-skinned people who have just been in an area and have a connotation that demonstrates ability, wealth, and trust. Meanwhile, the word immigrant is used to describe people who come to a new area to live and have a much less undesirable meaning. Furthermore, "immigrants" are words that can be paired with "illegal", which have a very negative connotation for those who project social cognition against others. Continuous abuse and abuse of these words are used to describe others in English can alter group perception in a degrading manner. "Most of the time when we hear [illegal immigrants] being used, most of the time the 'illegal' shorter version is used as a noun, implying that humans are perpetually illegal.No other classification I realize where the individual is perceived illegal, against the individual's actions. "
A series of language examinations sought to discover whether there was a direct relationship between homophobic nicknames and social cognitive distance to a group of homosexuals, a form of dehumanization. These nicknames (for example, fagot ) are considered to be inhumane labels because of their tendency to act as deviation labels. In both studies, subjects were shown nicknames of homophobia, labeled categories, or non-specific insults. The subjects were then asked to link the words of animal and human connotations to both heterosexual and homosexual. The result found that malignant language, when compared with insubordination and non-specific labels, subjects would not relate the human connotative words to homosexuality. Furthermore, the same assessment is done to measure the effect that language may have on the physical distance between subject and homosexual. Similar to previous associative language studies, it was found that subjects became physically farther to homosexuals, suggesting malignant language could encourage dehumanization, cognitive and physical distance in a way that other malignant forms do not.
Art
Francisco Goya, a well-known Spanish painter and graphicist of the romantic period often portray subjectivities involving war atrocities and brutal violence that convey the dehumanization process. In the romantic period the art of depicting martyrdom is most often a means of deifying the oppressed and tormented, and common to Goya to describe the evil personality of this unjustly horrible act. But that's the revolutionary way painters break this convention by degrading the martyrs of these figures. "... a person will not know who the painting is describing, so certainly Goya reduces his subject from martyrs to flesh."
More topics
Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky's propaganda models argue that corporate media can carry out a large and successful dehumanization campaign when they promote the goals (profit-making) that the company must meet to maximize it. Both in democracy and dictatorship, state media is also capable of conducting dehumanization campaigns, to what extent the population is unable to ward off inhumane memes.
See also
References
External links
- https://web.archive.org/web/20100929000211/http://www.psychwiki.com/wiki/Dehumanization
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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